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STATIONARY LOCOMOTIVE and MARINE \ 
ENGINEERS JIREMEN, ELECTRICIANS] 
% _ MOTORMENandMACHINISTS . J 




Class. 
Book_ 



:t_x 



Xii 



OopigM]f_. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



PRACTICAL POINTS 

A HANDBOOK FOR 

Stationary, Locomotive and Marine 

Engineers, Firemen, Electricians, 

Motormen and Machinists 

BY 

JOHN S. FARNUM, M. E. 



ILLUSTRATED 



Copyright, 1894-1895, by J. S. Farnum 

Copyright, 1893-1901, by W. G. Kraft 

Copyright, 1908, by Wm. H. Lee 



CHICAGO 

LAIRD & LEE, Publishers 



THE UBRARYOF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

MAR 5 1903 

<^ Copyright Entry 
CLASS 0U XXc. No. 
COPY B. 



TT 

PREFACE 



HHRACTICAL knowledge is the principal re- 
quirement in an engineer and mechanic, 
and the proper way to acquire it, is by 
actual work in factory and repair shop, or about 
the engine. But a lucid explanation of the inner 
arrangement of a complicated machine or appa- 
ratus, an easy demonstration of a difficult point, 
and the art of expressing in clear language the 
knowledge gained, cannot be obtained by the most 
assiduous physical labor. 

They require a different practice : a careful 
training both in understanding the point of the 
question, and in giving a correct, complete and 
concise answer. As it will soon be impossible 
e « # for« can ; engineer ••to • tili any desirable position 
/•Vitnpi?f ^a§smg a v sefefe*test, the need of a thor- 
ough drill in the mental work is self-evident. 
*:^ba1 "t be .'present vofijpVe^will prove a welcome aid 
' fn* {his** necessary preparation for the required 
examination, whether it be for City, State, 
or Government license, is the conviction and 
desire of 

THE PUBLISHERS. 



x^r 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Boilers, construction 5 

Boilers, management 17 

Boilers, incrustation, etc.. 23 

Firing, stationary 27 

Safety valve 31 

Firing, locomotive 35 

Steam 42 

Water 45 

Injectors and pumps 49 

* Combustion 57 

Steam engine 62 

Lubricator 68 

Steel square 71 

Valve motion 75 

Locomotive valve setting . . 75 

Horse power 78, 88 

Indicator 81 

Locomotive breakdowns.. 89 

Airbrake 105 

Speeding and signals 125 

Engine whistles 128 

Signals, train 129 

Signals, torpedo 130 

Semaphores, etc 131 

Mixed questions, etc 132 

Rules and recipes 137 

Rules to polish boilerheads, 

etc 138 

Rules to cool hot pins 138 



PAGE 

Rules for calendar calcula- 
tions 138 

Rules to clean brass 139 

Rules to cover boilers, etc. i40 
Rules for steam heating, 

141, 163 

Brick work for boiler beds, 

etc 143 

Engine foundations 145 

Melting, boiling and freez- 
ing points 146 

How sound travels 147 

Tempering 149 

How to draw an ellipse 150 

Rule to find circumferences, .153 
Weights and Measures, ... 154 
Properties of saturated 

steam 155 

Area of circles 156 

To mix colors, etc 157 

Corliss engine 165 

Automatic engine 167 

Automatic governor 167 

Electricity 168 

Dynamo 171 

Motors 179 

Telegraph and Batteries. . . 183 
Telegraph sounder 192 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Duplex Pump.., 50 

Injector 52 

Indicator 81 

Slide valve automatic en- 
gine 64 

Steel square . 71 

Indicator diagrams .... 82, 83 

Ellipse 151 

Diagram to erect a perpen- 
dicular line. .. . 152 

Corliss engine 165 



PAGE 

Automatic engine., 167 

Dynamo 171 

Skeleton Dynamo 172 

Arc lamp 173 

Armature 174 

Incandescent lamp 176 

Arc dynamo 178 

Electro motor 179 

Telegraph key 190 

Telegrapher's code . 191 

Sounder 192 



NOTE 

The following questions and answers are for 
locomotive, stationary and marine engineers and 
firemen to use as a guide in preparing them- 
selves for an examination. First you must fill 
out a blank and have same properly signed 
before going before the examining board. Then 
await your turn and be ready when called. 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOILERS. 

Q. What is a steam boiler? 

A. A steam boiler is an air tight vessel 
and may be divided into three divisions or 
six classes, namely: locomotive, marine, 
tubular, flue, hanging fire box and upright 
boilers. The hanging fire box is fired inside 
of itself, tubular and flue boilers are fired 
externally having an attached furnace. 

Q. How are marine boilers fired? 

A. They are fired inside of themselves. 

O. Are boilers single or double riveted? 

A. They are both. Single for low press- 
ure and double for high pressure. 

Q. Name the different strains the boiler 
has to contend with? 

A. Bursting strain and tearing. 

Q. Is the strain greater on the sides than 
on the ends? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Why so? 



8 



A. Because the steam pressure has a 
larger surface to work on. 

Q. How are boilers strengthened? 

A. They are strengthened by stay bolts 
and braces. 

Q. Name the different braces in general 
use? 

A. The stay bolts, the angle brace, crow- 
foot, side brace, longitudinal and dome brace. 
In hanging fire box boilers the crown sheet 
is braced by what is known as crown bars. 

Q. Of what construction is a successful 
and economical boiler? 

A. The chief points are in proper circu- 
lation facilities and good construction. For 
tubular boilers place the tubes in vertical 
rows leaving out centre row. The circula- 
tion in a boiler is up on the sides, down the 
centre. Ziz-zag tubes check the circulation 
and give poor results. 

Q. State the strain on a stay bolt and 
how is the calculation made? 

A. The stay bolts, as a rule, support an 
area of thirty-six square inches, multiply the 
area by the steam pressure and you will have 
the strain upon each stay bolt. The distance 
that stay bolts should be set apart should 
not exceed six thousand pounds per square 



inch cross sectional area. To determine the 
distance multiply the cross sectional area of 
bolt by 6,000, divide by steam pressure and 
extract square root of quotient. 

Q. State the surface of plate a stay bolt 
has to support? 

A e The support is represented by the 
rectangle or area enclosed between four 
bolts. 

Q. How is the rectangle known between 
four bolts, each six inches apart? 

A. It is known by multiplying one dis- 
tance by the other; 6x6=36 square inches, 
each bolt has to support. 

Q. Of what use is a hollow stay bolt? 

A. It is used to supply air above the fire 
and help combustion. 

Q. Compute the horse-power of a hori- 
zontal tubular boiler, 5 foot diameter, 16 foot 
long, containing 78 3 inch tubes, each tube 
16 foot long? 

A. Multiply diameter of shell by 3.1416 
to get circumference 15.70 feet, the lower 
half of shell being the only heating sur- 
face divide this by 2 which equals 7.85, 
multiplied by the length of shell 16 feet 
equals 125.60 square feet. The circumfer- 
ence of 3 inch tube is, 9.42 inches by the 



8 



same rule multiplied by its length, 192 inches 
equals 1808.64; which multiplied by the 
number of tubes, 78, equals 141,073.92 square 
inches, or 979 square feet, which added to 
the square feet of the shell equals 1107 
square feet, divided by 15 equals 73^ horse- 
power. 

Q. Name the number of square feet of 
heating surface allowed to a horse-power in 
different makes of boilers? 

A. Horizontal tubular boilers 15 square 
feet, vertical 12 square feet, locomotive 12 
square feet, flue 10 square feet and plain 
cylinder 9 square feet. 

Q. How many square feet of grate sur- 
face does it take to consume 12 pounds of 
coal? 

A. One square foot. 

Q. How many pounds of water will be 
evaporated by one pound of good coal? 

A. The average will be 6 to 10 pounds of 
water. The average result is about 25 to 50 
per cent, below this, for it is estimated by 
some of the best authorities that 1-16 inch 
of scale in the boiler causes a waste of 10 
to 15 per cent, of fuel and in this proportion 
upwards according to the thickness of scale. 

Q. How would you know the amount of 



9 



water a boiler is evaporating by a given num- 
ber of lbs, of coal used in one hour, say 1,000 
lbs.? 

A. Simply divide 1,000 (or lbs of coal) 
by 7^, and answer will be cubic feet of water. 
Multiply ans. by 7^, and the result will be 
the number of gallons evaporated in one 
hour. 

Q. How many gallons of water in one 
cubic foot, also how many cubic inches? 

A. There are 7^ gallons in a cubic foot, 
and 1728 cubic inches in a cubic foot. 

O. Name some of the causes of boiler ex- 
plosions? 

A. Explosions of steam boilers are gen- 
erally due to defective material, defects of 
construction, improper management and 
natural causes. An explosion takes place 
when the resistance is less at some point 
than the pressure to which it is subjected, 
and may happen even when the pressure is 
very low. The explosion of a boiler is not 
an instantaneous action, although it seems 
so. It is a well defined and rapidly succeed- 
ing series of operations. The rupture com- 
mences at a point where the resistance of- 
fered by the material is less than the strain 
to which it is subjected and it extends into 



10 



the adjoining part when these parts are too 
weak to sustain this increased strain that the 
rupture already made brings to bear on them, 
together with the shock due to the motion 
that the edges of the fracture make while 
seeking a new state of equilibrium. In case 
of an explosion the steam pressure does not 
fall the instant the rupture takes place ; on 
the contrary the pressure continues very 
nearly up to the time when all the water 
has escaped from the boiler. An explosion 
is so much more terrible as there are more 
fractures made prior to the moment when 
the boiler is entirely emptied of its water. 

Q. Is it dangerous to let water run low in 
the boiler? 

A. Yes, it is very dangerous as the plates 
become red hot, and the softened plates will 
tear open and may produce an explosion if 
the hot part is hot enough or if the adjoining 
parts do not offer sufficient resistance. 

Q. Is the steam pressure lowered when 
feeding a boiler with low water? 

A. When water is fed into a boiler when 
the water is too low it almost invariabiy 
lowers the pressure of the steam. 

Q. Is it dangerous to force water into a 
low water boiler with a hot fire in the fur- 
nace? 



11 



A. Yes it is always dangerous to feed, 
before dampening the fire because the water 
injected quiets the ebullition and increases 
the surface exposed to the heat. 

Q. Is it dangerous to empty a boiler 
when the tubes or flues are still hot!" 

A. Yes, it is dangerous; for such actions 
cause fractures of the transverse riveting in 
such manner as may not always be shown by 
leakage, and this effect may very easily pro- 
duce an explosion when next the fires are 
lighted or in a short time afterwards. 

Q. Why should a tubular boiler be kept 
clean on the outside? 

A. Because when a plate is covered with 
soot or incrustation most of the defects can- 
not be seen, therefore it is very important 
that boilers should be kept as clean as pos- 
sible externally as well as internally. 

Q. Name the various steps in an explo- 
sion which have heretofore been mentioned? 

A. First, a fracture in a plate followed 
by a rending; second, a violent bursting out 
of water and steam; third, a falling pressure; 
fourth, portions of the water are propelled 
with great violence against the shells of the 
boiler and shattering it by the expansive 
force of the steam disseminating throughout 



12 



the body of the water; fifth, the steam gen- 
erated from the liberated water imparts a 
high velocity to the fragments, converting 
them into projectiles, thus spreading ruin 
and destruction around. 

Q. From the various experiments and 
investigations what conclusions have been 
arrived at? 

A. A violent explosion may take place 
in a boiler when there is plenty of water in 
it; second, that a moderate pressure of steam 
may produce a terrific explosion when there 
is plenty of water; third, that a boiler may 
explode under steam at a less pressure than 
it has stood without apparent injury from a 
water pressure or hydraulic inspection, there- 
fore hammer test is the better; fourth, a rup- 
ture will be followed by relief of pressure 
with or without explosions as the fracture is 
extended or otherwise; fifth, that an explo- 
sion rarely occurs in an externally fired 
boiler from low water. 

Q, How is the safe working pressure of 
a boiler found? 

A. Multiply twice the thickness of the 
shell by the tensile strength, and divide the 
answer by five times the diameter of the 
shell in inches^ 



13 



Q. State the proper place for a lower 
gauge cock in a tubular or flue boiler? 

A. Two inches above the upper row of 
flues. 

O. State the proper place for a lower 
gauge cock in an upright boiler? 

A. One-third the distance between the 
two flue sheets, measuring from the top 
flue sheet. 

Q. What is known as the fire line of a 
boiler (Tubular)? 

A. The fire line is between the water line 
and the top row of flues. 

Q. What is known as the water line? 

A. The water line is known as two 
inches above the flues. 

Q. What is corrosion? 

A. Corrosion is one of the strongest de- 
structive forces to which the boiler is sub- 
jected. Internal corrosion is caused by the 
concentrated acids of the water, which attack 
the most susceptible portions of the plates 
or tubes, and if the acids are volatile or the 
liquid acids carried by foaming or priming 
into the steam space, the plates there also 
suffer. Corrosion is very capricious in its 
action, some boilers are attacked on the 
shell, others will suffer principally in the 



14 



tubes, and others at the rivets and seams. 
The erratic action must be ascribed to the 
gravity of the acids at work, their concen- 
tration in certain parts due to the circulation 
of the water, to the nature of the iron or 
steel, and to other causes more obscure. 
Uniform corrosion is that species of the 
wasting of plates, tubes, etc, in a more or 
less even manner, and is like ordinary rust- 
ing in its character. Pitting or honey-comb- 
ing is another form, well marked by the 
sharply defined edges they present, and is 
usually found in patches of various sizes. 

Q. What causes grooving or channeling? 

A. Grooving or channeling, as it is usu- 
ally termed, is due to the mechanical action 
produced by unequaled expansion and con- 
traction. 

Q. Where would be a good place to force 
in the feed water to overcome grooving? 

A. Introduce the feed water near the 
water level in the boiler instead of near the 
-bottom, it will help some. 

Q. Would'you consider it dangerous to 
empty a boiler when the tubes or flues are hot ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Is it dangerous to fire up a boiler too 
rapidly? 



15 



A. Yes, it is very dangerous, as where 
the draft and combustion are sufficient for a 
white heat, the plates, no matter how good 
they are, cannot resist with certainty. 

Q. Name over several kinds of explo- 
sions? 

A. Scaly boilers, by overheating, defec- 
tive circulation, corrosion, explosion of gas 
in the furnace of flues, hydraulic testing by 
straining, letting water run low and over- 
heating, then pumping cold water into the 
boiler. 

Q. What causes defective circulation? 

A. When boiler tubes are too close 
together and not having room enough for 
the water to circulate when making steam. 

Q. How far apart should the tubes or 
flues be for proper circulation? 

A. They should be y 2 the diameter of 
the flue itself apart, and in perpendicular rows. 

Q. How is the tonage strain on the 
crown sheet of a fire-box known? 

A. Multiply the length by breadth in 
inches, divide by 12 for feet; multiply ans.. 
by steam pressure and divide by 2,000. Ans. 
is tons. 

Q. State rule to find amount of strain a 
crown sheet will withstand? 



16 



A. Simply use same rule as above and 
divide the tonage by 2.66 if a ^ inch plate, 
4 if a % inch plate, and 2 if % inch plate 
(thickness). 



17 
MANAGEMENT OF BOILERS. 

It is fully as important to manage a boiler 
properly as it is to have it properly designed and 
constructed. From the time the boiler is set at 
work it is subject to destroying forces which 
must he counteracted as much as possible. 
Therefore the person under whose immediate 
charge the boiler properly comes, should be a 
strictly sober and competent man. 

Q. What is the first duty of a fireman or en- 
gineer before starting a fire under a boiler ? 

A. He should see that there is plenty of water 
in the boiler by trying the guage cocks. 

Q. What next should he look after f 

A. He should see that the blow-off cock is 
shut, that the hand-hole and the man -hole plates 
do not leak, or if they do he must tighten them 
with wrench and hammer ; also look at seams 
and tube or flue ends for leaks. 

Q. If circumstances will allow how should a 
boiler be cleaned ? 

A. When the fire is hauled, the throttle valve 
on the steam pipe next to the boiler should be 
shut; the ashes and cinders quenched and wheeled 
to the ash pile ; the furnace and ash pit doors 
and the dampers should be closed and the steam 

2 



18 



blown off at the safety valve until there is only 
about five pounds pressure ; then the safety valve 
should be lowered to its seat. 

Q. Would you blow out the boiler then ? 

A. No, let the water remain in the boiler until 
it and the furnace is cool, then let the water and 
slush run out through the blow-off cock. 

Q. Why not blow out water with a light 
pressure on ? 

A. It has a tendency to weaken the seams 
and also the boiler in general, by uneven 
expansion. 

Q. What is next done after boiler is empty ? 

A. W^hen the boiler is empty, the man-holes 
and hand-holes may be opened, and the boiler 
rinsed out; then examine carefully inside; the 
scales must be knocked off with light blows of a 
pick or scraped with bars and chisels, or loosened 
with angular wire chains, etc., then wash the 
boiler clean with water. 

Q. When should the scale be removed? 

A. The scale should be removed as soon as 
possible after the water has been let out of the 
boiler, before it has time to dry and harden, if 
any repairs are to be made to the braces, etc., 
they should be made and the boiler closed up. 

Q. How about the outside and connections c/f 
boiler? 

A. The flues and connections should be swept 



19 



aud the boiler bottom scraped with a wire brush 
After above the boiler is ready for filling with 
water, which should be done at once, and then 
it should be examined carefully for leaks, which 
if found should be repaired at once, before the 
boiler is put into use again, if, however, it is not 
intended to use the boiler for some time it will 
be well to drain all the water out of it, and to 
dry it thoroughly by pans of charcoal, and then 
set a pan or two of lime into the boiler, and 
close it tightly. 

Q. Why dry the boiler and set in it pans of 
lime and close it tight ? 

A. To prevent oxidation. 

Q. Name the principle tools about a fire room 
or boiler room? 

A. A full set of tools consist of a shovel, 
slicebar, T bar pricker, hoe, coal hammer and 
devils claw, together with a broom and dust 
brush, and also a chipping hammer, a flat cape 
and diamond point chissel, and wrenches to fit 
the nuts and bolts about the boiler, a monkey - 
w T rench and screw driver. 

Q. State the tensile strength of a boiler tube, 
say three or four inches in diameter, or how is 
the strength of the tube calculated longitudi- 
nally ? 

A. The standard thickness of a three inch 



20 

tube is .109 of an inch ; its circumference is 
9.4248 inches. There would have to be pulled 
apart 9.4248 x. 109 = 1 0273 square inches of iron 
to separate the tube lengthwise. One square inch 
will hold from 40,000 to 50,000 pounds. As- 
suming 45,000 pounds as the tensile stength per 
square inch of section, it would require 45,000 x 
1.0273 = 40,288 pounds to pull the tube apart 
longitudinally. 

Q. What pressure will a tube resist when 
expanded into the headsheet of a boiler beaded, 
and not beaded ? 

A. The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection 
and. Insurance Co, prepared and had tested 
three inch tubes expanded into plates with a 
Dugeon expander, without beading. The first 
was expanded into a 3-8 inch plate, and it re- 
quired 0,500 pounds to pull it out. The two 
others were expanded into 15-32 inch plates, 
and it required 5,000 and 7,500 pounds respec- 
tively to pull them out. They later prepared 
two similar specimens, both tubes left projecting 
beyond the tube sheet and flared and expanded 
into 3-8 inch plates. The observed stress which 
first produced yielding was 20,500 pounds iD 
one and 19,000 pounds in the other, 500 pounds 
additional being required in both cases to com' 
pletely dislodge the tubes. 



21 



Q. When calculating the load on a safety 
valve, is any allowance made for atmospheric 
pressure on the back of it ; if not, why ? 

A. No, because the gauge pressure in which 
the results are figured and expressed signify the 
difference between boiler pressure and atmos- 
pheric pressure, not the absolute pressure in the 
boiler. There must be atmospheric pressure in 
the boiler when the pointer stands at zero, and 
one pound above the atmosphere, or 15.7 abso- 
lute, when the gauge indicates one pound. 

Q. How much hydraulic test should a boiler 
be put to, to carry 100 pounds pressure of 
steam ? 

A. It is usual to subject a boiler to hydraulic 
pressure 50 per cent, greater than the steam 
which it is to carry. For 100 pounds pressure 
of steam, the hydraulic test should be 150 
pounds. 

Q. Is the hydraulic test for boiler the better 
way to test a boiler ? 

A. No, the hammer test is the best. 

Q. Why is the hammer test the better of the 
two ? 

A. Because boilers can be strained by the 
hydraulic test and show no leak when the pres- 
sure is used, but when steam is raised the boiler 
expands and opens the strain caused by the cold 
water test. 



22 

Q. Can you give a good short rule and ex- 
ample to figure a safety valve, and know at what 
pressure it will blow off ? 

A. Yes, after having taken all the measure- 
ments, length of lever fulcrum, weight of lever 
valve and stem, and weight of ball, we divide 
the fulcrum into the length of the lever, multiply 
by weight of ball, add the weight of lever valve 
and stem when connected at the fulcrum, and 
divide by the area of the valve. Example: 
lever twenty-four inches long, fulcrum four 
inches, weight of lever, valve and stem, 32 
pounds ; diameter of valve 2\ inches = 3.9 area. 
Weight of ball 40 pounds, 4-^-24 = 6x40 = 
240+32 = 272 -^-3.9 = 70 pounds steam pres- 
sure bailer will blow off. 

Q. Are spring pop valves figured? 

A. No, they are set with a guage, specially 
made for the purpose. 

Q. Of what use are safety pop valves? 

A. They are supposed to release the 
boiler of all pressure above a point at which 
they are set. 

Q. State the proper size of a safety pep? 

A. As a rule three square feet of grate 
surface equals one square inch of pop valve 
(area). 



23 

BOILER INCRUSTATION AND 
CORROSION. 

The prevention of incrustation and corrosion 
is of vital importance. In fact, there is no sub- 
ject of so much importance in the promotion of 
the efficiency, economy and life of the steam 
boiler. 

Among the evil effects arising from the pres- 
ence of incrustation and corrosion can be directly 
attributed, a loss of fuel, varying from 1 to 37 
per cent. 

If waste of fuel were the only evil incident to 
the mismanagement of steam boilers, it might 
be tolerated in localities where fuel is abundant 
and cheap; but other great evils result from in- 
crustation, such as burning of iron, granula- 
tion of the material, bagging, blistering, and 
fracture of the sheets, flues and tubes. Also 
pitting of iron, and many other forms of corro- 
sion. All of which having the tendency of des- 
troying the tensile strength, elasticity, and resis- 
tance of the iron, and rendering it liable to 
explosion at any time with disastrous effect. 

If the steam boiler is expected to render proper 
service,to be safe and durable, and an easy steam 
generator, certain conditions must be complied 
with. It must be intelligently managed, care- 



24 

fully fired, not over taxed, and above all, kept 
safe and clean on the inside. 

To properly protect the interior of the steam 
boiler, to keep the iron clean and in good safe 
condition, chemistry is undoubtedly the only 
source from which to seek relief and protection 
from the disastrous results occasioned from the 
above named destructive agents. The corrosive 
and destructive acids contained in solution in 
water, can only be neutralized by the interven- 
tion of a chemical basis, and it must be borne 
in mind that no mechanical means can fulfill 
this requirement. 

In consequence of the demand for an efficient 
and reliable preventative of incrustation and 
corrosion, a great variety of nostrums have been 
placed upon the market, and offered to steam 
users under attractive names, and for which ex- 
ceptional merit is claimed; but an analysis of 
these preparations, together with a knowledge 
of their components, and resulting actions, dissi- 
pates these claims and conclusively demonstrates 
that, with few exceptions, the manufacturers of 
the same have not the requisite knowledge of 
chemistry, that would entitle their preparations 
to the confidence of the steam user. 

The author has had a wide experience in the 
capacity of Boiler Inspector for many years, in 



25 

which experience he has come in contact with 
nearly all the steam users in several states, and 
daring this experience, I may honestly affirm 
that I have found but one preparation which I 
consider entirely reliable as a remedy for incrus- 
tation and corrosion in steam boilers. 

This article has gained a world-wide reputa- 
tion, and is endorsed by the leading authorities 
not only thoughout the United States, but also 
in foreign countries, to which it is exported in 
large quantities. The article I refer to is man- 
ufactured in Philadelphia, Pa., by Mr. Geo. W. 
Lord, a practical manufacturing chemist and 
engineer, who is also well known as an author 
and contributor to some of our best scientific 
works on steam engineering. 

His preparations are know T n as "Lord's Boiler 
Compound," but I will here state that the words 
" Lord's Boiler Compound " are only his trade 
mark, under which such different compounds are- 
prepared, as each individual steam user may 
require; or such specific preparations as may be 
required, where the same or similar waters are 
used in certain territories, and Mr. Lord's ex- 
tensive trade is no doubt due to his scientific 
knowledge and skill in furnishing a preparation, 
which is suited to the requirements of each indi- 
vidual case. 



26 

You may have noticed circulars and other ad- 
vertisements of boiler cleansing preparations, 
which the manufacturers claim to be purely veg- 
etable. It is a well known fact that vegetable 
matter principally consists of acids, carbon, 
earthy salts, etc., and the active and soluble 
properties contained in these preparations, are 
acids which are more harmful to the boiler than 
any boiler incrustation. 

Oil is also frequently employed as a prevent- 
ative of boiler incrustation, but any intelligent 
engineer will understand that this invariably 
induces overheating, and burning of the plates, 
tubes and flues. 

Oil has the property of penetrating the pores 
of boiler incrustation, and detaching it in large 
fragments from the boiler surfaces, thereby pre- 
cipitating this aggregate mass directly over the 
heating surface, causing burning, blistering, and 
bagging of the material. 

This is a dangerous practice, and one liable 
at all times to invite boiler explosions. 

Oil is also a convenient cloak, under which 
to introduce vegetable and mineral acids into 
the boiler, and this daring practice is of fre- 
quent occurence, and is worthy of criminal 
prosecution. 



27 
PROPER FIRING. 

Firing is only done properly when the fuel is 
consumed in the best possible way, that is, when 
no more is burned than is necessary to produce 
the amount of steam required and to keep the 
pressure uniform. To reach this end complete 
combustion must be attained in the furnace, and 
to know when this is going on, is when the fuel 
is burning with a bright flame evenly all over 
the grate furnace. 

Q. How do the colors show when the fire is 
badly managed? 

A. Blue flames, dark spots and smoke, are 
the best evidence of incomplete combustion. 

Q. What is the cause of bad combustion? 

A. It is caused by not having air enough 
above the fuel in the furnace. Experience is 
the best teacher although points from a book 
are very applicable in all cases of firing differ- 
ent makes of boilers. 

Q. How should the tools be placed about a 
boiler room ? 

A. Every tool should have its place and be 
kept there when not in use, and if broken should 
be repaired at once. Never keep furnace doors 
open longer than absolutely necessary, and the 
firing should be done as quickly as possible. 



28 

Q. Why should the furnace door be closed 
quickly and the firing done quickly ? 

A. To prevent contraction of the boiler bot- 
tom from the cool air entering the furnace. 

Q. Should a fire be stirred often ? 

A. No; the fire should not Ld stirred any 
more than is necessary. 

Q. Why? 

A. In order to avoid the waste from small 
coal from dropping through the bars. 

Q. Suppose the chimney draft was very 
strong, how could it be controlled? 

A. Simply close the damper partially, also 
the ash pit doors. 

Q. Name the proper thickness of fires under 
boilers ? 

A. For anthracite coal the thickness should 
be from six to eight inches generally. For bi- 
tuminous coal from eight to ten inches, and with 
coke from ten to twelve inches. 

Q. How large should the coal be when thrown 
into the furnace ? 

A. Not larger than a man's fist. 

Q, State the best way to start a fire under a 
cold boiler ? 

A. Cover the grate bars with coal for about 
two-thirds of their length from the bridgewall, 
pile a little wood, cob-house fashion, 



29 



on the open bars, and put a few lighted shavings 
or oily waste in the mouth of the furnace, partly 
close the furnace doors, and wholly close the 
ash pit doors. 

Q. Why is coal thrown back on the grate 
bars first f 

A. The coal on the grate bars prevents air 
from coming through them and impairing the 
draft, while the partial opening of the furnace 
door supplies air to the burning wood and 
directs the flame over the coal in the back end 
of the furnace, gradually heating the coal up to 
the point of ignition. 

Q. What is next done? 

A* After the wood is burning well, coal may 
be thrown upon it and the furnace doors closed, 
the ash pit doors being then open. 

Q. When is more coal thrown in on the fire? 

A. As soon as the fire will bear it being 
done, and the fire is gradually pushed back 
until there is a full fire on the whole length of 
the grate bars. 

Q Should a fire be hurried? 

A. No, it must be allowed to " come up " as 
it is termed, very gradually, and to do this put 
on a little coal at a time. 

Q, How should a fire be kept ? 

A. The fires should always be kept level and 



30 

of a uniform thickness, with the exception that 
at the sides, corners, and at the bridge wall it 
must be enough thicker to prevent cold air from 
leaking through. 

Q. When should a fire be cleaned ? 

A. The fire should be cleaned when the 
clinkers and dirt accumulate to an extent 
sufficient to clog the draught. 

Q. How are the fires cleaned? 

A. Boilers with wide furnaces it is better, 
perhaps, to clean only one half at a time and let 
the fire burn up well on that side before attempt- 
ing to clean the other half. 

Q. Where there are several furnaces all lead- 
ing into the same chimney, how should they 
be fired ? 

A. They should be fired alternately in order 
to keep the steam at a regular pressure and ob- 
serve the greatest economy in fuel. 

Q. Is it a good idea to wet coal just before 
firing? 

A. No, it is wasteful of heat and produces 
corrosion. 

Q. Is it safe to close the damper entirely ? 

A. Never close the damper entirely while 
there is fire on the grates as gas may collect in 
the flues and an explosion may take place which 



31 

would ruin the boiler; it is also apt to "burn 
down" the grate bars. 

Q Are there any reasons to believe that 
boilers have exploded through the explosion of 
gas? 

A. Yes, there are reasons to believe that 
boiler explosions have been produced in this 
manner. 

Q. Is it proper to bank a fire? 

A. Yes, a banked fire properly kept up is 
conducive to longevity of the boiler, because of 
the less amount of contraction and expansion 
induced owing to difference in temperature. 

Q. How should the feed-water be supplied? 

A. The feed-water should be supplied regu- 
larly and continuously and the water-line should 
be kept at a regular height, and there should 
never be less than three or four inches in depth 
over the highest part of the furnace, flues, or 
connections exposed to the flames or hot gases ; 
but it is very bad practice to carry the water too 
high in a boiler as it will cause priming. 

Q. Which is the proper way to try the safety- 
valve? 

A. By raising steam until the boiler safety- 
valve begins to " simmer," noting the pressure 
by the steam gauge at the moment. 

Q. Can a safety-valve not be raised by hand? 



32 

A. Yes, but that would not inform me that 
it would blow off at the proper time with pro- 
per pressure. Steam pressure should never be 
allowed to exceed its highest blow-off limit. 

Q. Suppose the steam gauge was showing 
that the steam was rising rapidly what would 
you do ? 

A. Simply feed water in the boiler at once, 
partly close the damper and the ash pit doors. 
If in spite of this the steam is still rising, open 
up the furnace doors a little, and feed more 
strongly. 

Q. Suppose the water rose in the glass 
higher than practicable, what should be done ? 

A. Open the blow-off a little, at the same 
time watch the water-line very closely, by con- 
tinuously trying the gauge cock. 

Q. Suppose the water was dangerously low 
when the steam started to raise would you pump 
in water? 

A. No ; if the pump is in motion at the time, 
leave it continue. The furnace doors must be 
opened and damp, small coal and ashes thrown 
over the fire, then in a few minutes the boiler 
will be cool enough to allow pumping up. In 
such a case examine the top row of flues for 
leaks. 



33 

Q. How often should the gauge glass be 
blown through during the day? 

A. Several times every day, also the gauge 
cocks should be tried about every half hour. 

Q. Why try the gauge cocks when you know 
by the glass gauge you have water? 

A. To know if the glass is in working order. 

Q. What is " foaming"? 

A. Foaming is a violent mixing of the water 
and steam in the boiler which results in " prim- 
ing" or the carrying of the water, in the state 
of a fine spray, with the steam into the engine 
cylinder, often knocking out a cylinder-head, 
rapidly lowering the water-level in the boiler 
sometimes so much as to be dangerous. 

Q. What generally causes foaming? 

A. Foaming is generally caused by irregu- 
larity in firing or feeding, impure water, espe- 
cially if it be greasy ; contracted steam space ; 
too small extent of area at the water-line ; from 
the tubes being crowded together; the boiler 
not being clean; the throttle or safety-valve 
being opened too suddenly ; the boiler not being 
clean, and in marine boilers changing the feed 
water from salt to fresh, or the reverse. 

Q. Explain how one can know "when a boiler 
is foaming? 

A. It is generally shown in the glass gauge 

8 



34 



by a sudden rising or falling of the water, or 
by boiling or showering of the water down 
through the glass, also by a peculiar sput- 
tering sound given upon opening the gauge 
cock. 

Q. How can it be overcome? 

A. It can be overcome by partially closing 
the throttle and opening the furnace doors 
and feeding strongly; sometimes, however, 
it is necessary to blow out a little water from 
the boiler, but this should not be resorted to 
except in extreme cases. Keep the boiler 
clean, and the water clean, and little of such 
trouble will occur. 

Q. How much pressure per square inch 
of steam should there be in a boiler before 
the needle on the steam gauge begins to 
move? 

A. About 15 pounds pressure per square 
inch. 

Q. Why? 

A. The atmospheric pressure in the boiler 
must be overcome. 

Q. By what power is a steam gauge 
needle moved; also state the use of the cir- 
cular bent pipe between boiler and gauge? 

A. The needle is moved by expansion of 
the condensed water left in the crooked pipe 






35 



under gauge. If it were a straight pipe and 
steam came in direct contact with the gauge 
it would sweat the glass and not show a true 
state of affairs. 

LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

Q. What is your understanding of steam 
pressure as shown by the steam gauge? 

A. The steam gauge shows the steam 
pressure on each square inch on the inside 
of the boiler. 

Q. What is the result on the exhaust 
steam going through the stack? 

A. It carries the air up through the 
stack with each exhaust and by drawing it 
from the front end produces a partial vacuum 
there. 

Q. In what way does the exhaust steam 
create draft on the fire? 

A. When the air is drawn out of the 
front end, the air and products of combus- 
tion in firebox flow through the flues to fill 
the space, this in turn allows the pressure of 
the atmosphere to force fresh air up through 
the grates and fire and makes a steady flow 
of airinto the firebox. 

Q. What is your idea of the proper size 



36 



of stack — inside diameter, length, and taper 
or straight inside? 

A. That is a pretty hard question to ask 
a young fireman, but I have noticed that 
when a smaller stack is put on an engine it 
increases the draft on the fire. If the stack 
is very short, it seems to work better if it is 
made smaller in proportion to the size of 
the cylinder than if it is a long one. I also 
notice that a good many of the taper stacks 
have a bushing inside of them that is 
straight, or the same size at both ends. 
Some of our engines have stacks two inches 
smaller than the cylinder, others have stacks 
three inches smaller. A freight engine in 
heavy service with a very small stack is very 
hard on coal, when with light service she 
might be very economical. Where the 
stack is small the exhaust nozzle can be 
made larger and exhaust have the same 
effect on the fire, this helps to do away 
with the back pressure in the cylinders. 

Q. Will air enough come through the 
grates and fire to form perfect combustion 
of the coal? 

A. Not under all conditions. 

Q. Is it necessary to admit any air above 
the fire? 



37 



A. Generally it is. The gas formed 
from the coal that does not combine with 
the air coming through the grates and fire 
must have another portion of air admitted 
above the fire to help it burn, or it will pass 
through the flues and out the stack uncon- 
sumed and wasted. 

Q. What is the object of the holes in the 
firebox door? 

A. To admit air over the fire; they are 
also convenient to light up the deck and 
tender coal space if the holes are so drilled 
that the light will shine through lining and 
doors. 

Q. Will the cold air mix with the gases 
from the coal and burn at once, or must it be 
heated first? 

A. It must be heated first, very hot. 

Q. What effect would a very small ex- 
haust nozzle have on the fire? 

A. It makes a very fierce draft and lifts 
the coal up on the grates each exhaust ; un- 
less the fire is closely watched it will pull 
holes in it. 

Q. When the fire burns most in the front 
end of the firebox what does it indicate? 

A. Too much draft through the bottom 
rows of flues. 



38 



Q. How is this remedied? 

A. By changing the position of deflector 
plate in the front end or the petticoat pipe. 

Q. What is the object of the brick arch? 

A. To hold the gases that are formed 
from the coal in the firebox longer, so they 
will combine with the air and burn, to heat 
the air to a high temperature so it can do 
this; to prevent the emissions of dense black 
smoke; to protect the flues from the air 
coming in through the open door when firing 
and it checks the effect of the exhaust on 
the fire so that small particles of coal that 
would otherwise go through the flues and 
out the stack are held in the firebox and 
burned. 

Q. Does it save any coal? How? 

A. On most engines it does, on some it 
does not. With some varieties of coal it 
does not seem to make much difference. It 
saves coal because it helps to burn the gases 
that otherwise would go out unconsumed 
and wasted. If the side sheets are patched 
or leak any the arch makes them worse, as 
it keeps them hot after the other parts of 
the firebox are cool. 

Q. Explain how you would fire an engine 



39 



to make her steam well, run light on coal 
and avoid unnecessary smoke? 

A. I would keep an even fire by firing a 
little at a time and often — break the coal to 
a proper size so it would burn evenly all 
over the firebox, as large lumps and fine coal 
never burn alike or economically — a large 
chunk of coal takes considerable heat from 
the fire to get it burning and there is a large 
portion of it that does not burn for some 
time after it is put in the box, this takes up 
heat instead of giving it out — look out for 
places where the engineer usually shuts off 
so that the fire will burn brightly, this will 
avoid a good deal of black smoke. 

Q. How do you keep smoke from trailing 
overtrain when running shut-off? 

A. If there is still fresh coal on the fire 
that is still giving off black smoke, crack 
the door a very little and it may be neces- 
sary to put on the blower enough to draw 
some air through the fire and burn the smoke 
and also raise the smoke above the coaches. 
This depends upon the good judgment of 
the fireman; if the blower is on too strong it 
does more harm than good. 

Q. What effect does it have on the fire 



40 



to open the firebox door when the engine is 
working? 

A. It lets the air come in the easiest way, 
through the door instead of through the fire. 
When firing, if the door is closed each time 
between putting in scoops of coal, it keeps 
the fire burning properly, giving it a chance 
to ignite each scoop of coal as it is put in. 
If you keep the door open 'till the whole 
firing of coal is put in, there is not enough 
heat in the fire to ignite the fresh coal and 
keep up steam. An open door is hard on 
the flue sheet. 

Q. What effect does wetting the coal 
have? 

A. With soft porous coal the water gets 
in the cracks in the lumps of coal and it 
splits open as soon as it gets hot. With very 
fine coal it helps it to coke into small chunks 
that stay in the box and burn instead of 
going out with first exhaust. 

Q. What will you do with a fire that is 
banked? 

A. If it is on account of a clinker, get the 
clinker loose from the grates and out of the 
firebox if possible. If banked from too 
heavy firing, fire on the thin places only, use 



41 



coarse coal in holes in the fire ; fire on the 
white spots till it is level and of proper 
thickness again. 

Q. How does the blower operate? 

A. Just the same as the exhaust, only not 
so powerfully. 

Q. Will the blower prevent black smoke ? 

A. Yes sir, but a free steaming engine 
should not make much black smoke when 
shut off if handled properly, the blower 
should be used very lightly when necessary 
for this purpose. 

Q. If blower is put on too strong when 
cleaning the Are, what is liable to happen? 

A. The flues begin to leak on account of 
a strong draft of cold air striking them. If 
the "old man" is around and catches you at 
it, it means ten days' suspension. 

Q. Do you consider it wasteful to have 
an engine blow off frequently? 

A. Yes sir, but if both men on an engine 
do not work together it is a hard matter to 
prevent it. With some crews they work into 
each other's ways so you know just what to 
look out for and the engine rarely blows off. 
Then if you can carry up to within a few^ 



42 



pounds of blowing off all the time between 
stations, it uses less coal and water and is 
easier on the engine. 

STEAM. 

Q. What is steam? 

A. We might say that steam is a vapor 
formed from water, but that is not sufficiently 
definite, and demands some explanation. The 
passage of any liquid into the gaseous state 
is called vaporization, and the term "evapora- 
tion" especially refers to the sloW production 
of vapor at the free surface of a liquid and 
boiling to its rapid production in the mass 
of the liquid itself. 

Q. Explain a vapor. 

A. The term " vapor" is confined to evap- 
oration without boiling or ebullition ; the 
term " steam " indicates the gaseous form of 
water produced by ebullition, which is com- 
monly understood to take place at 212 deg. 
Fahr., or about it. 

Q. Does the temperature of the boiling 
point of water rise when the pressure is in- 
creased? 

A. Yes, though not in the same ratio, but 



43 



the same amount of pressure always corre- 
sponds to the same temperature of the boil- 
ing point in the same liquid. 

Q. When does a liquid boil? 

A. A liquid boils when the tension of 
its vapor is equal to the pressure it sup- 
ports. 

Q. If it takes a certain amount of heat 
to raise the temperature of a cubic foot of 
water from sixty deg. Fahr. to the boiling 
point at 212 deg. Fahr., and to further raise 
that waterinto steam of the same temperature 
it still requires a further expenditure of coal, 
what becomes of the extra amount of heat 
developed by the additional amount of coal? 

A. It is not shown by the thermometer ; 
it is absorbed in driving apart the particles 
of water and keeping them apart in a gase- 
ous state as steam. 

Q. State the degrees of heat at different 
pounds steam pressure, commencing at boil- 
ing point of water, then at ten pounds per 
square inch, etc. 



10 lbs., 


240 deg. 


120 lbs. f 


350 


20 " 


260 4t 


140 M 


360 


50 " 


298 " 


150 " 


365 


80 M 


324 " 


160 " 


370 


100 " 


338 " 


180 " 


380 



Q. What heat would you call steam? 



44 

A. " Latent heat," while thus employed. 

Q. What heat would it require to convert 
one pound of water into steam at atmospheric 
pressure ? 

A. Science shows that it will take the same 
amount of heat sufficient to melt three pounds 
of steel or thirteen pounds of gold. 

Q. Which is the better water for steam pur- 
poses and use in boilers ? 

A. Rain or atmospheric water which does 
not contain minerals, and is therefore best adap- 
ted for steam purposes. 

Q. Is it pure ? 

A. No; for in its descent to the earth it 
washes out the solid particles of dust and the 
germs of animals and plants, and in addition 
to these it dissolves the oxygen, the nitrogen 
and carbonic acid, which respectively cause 
corrosion and slight organic deposit in the 
steam boiler but it is almost entirely free from 
elemants necessary to cause incrustation. 

Q. After the rain has fallen to the earth and 
mixed, is it good then f 

A, Rain falling upon the earth's surface is 
absorbed by the porous soil, and the material of 
which the soil is composed being in a great de- 
gree soluble, it is absorbed, and the water be- 
comes contaminated with mineral matter, there- 



45 

fore the rain water before mixing with the earth 
is the better of the two. 

WATER, 

Q. Of w T hat is water composed ? 

A. Water is composed of volume, one part 
oxygen and two parts hydrogen, or by weight, 
oxygen 88 9-10 parts, hydrogen 10 1-10 parts. 
Water is one of the most wonderful substances 
in nature. 

Q. Is water compressible? 

A. Yes, slightly, at the rate of 1-100 of an 
inch in 18 10-100 feet by each lf> pounds per 
square inch pressure. 

Q. Will water restore its elasticity? 

A. When the pressure is removed its elastic^ 
ity restores its original bulk. 

Q. Has water a solvent power ? 

A Yes, water has a greater solvent power 
than any other known liquid, and it is due to its 
absorbent nature that it is rarely found pure or 
free from foreign substances in solution. 

Q. State the different weights of water in 
different proportions? 

A. Water is 8 15- 100 times heavier than air. 
One standard U. S. gallon of fresh water weighs 
eight and 1-4 pounds and contains 231 cubic 
inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62J 



46 



pounds, and contains 1728 cubic inches or about 
1\ gallons. Water boils at 212 degrees above 
zero and freezes at 32 above zero. 

Q. Will water part with all substances held 
in solution and become pure ; and when? 

A. When evaporated into steam or frozen 
into ice. 

Q. Does water expand when freezing? 

A. Yes, when water is pure and in small 
quantities it is transparent, odorless, colorless, 
tasteless, and is a bad conductor of either heat or 
electricity. 

Q. Give an idea or explanation how water 
becomes so valuable, and where does it go ? 

A. The ocean is the great and final recepta- 
cle for all water which escapes evaporation. 
From its surface the water evaporates, rising 
into the atmosphere to fall again in the form of 
rain ; entering the soil it again issues in the 
form of springs with a fresh quantity of dis- 
solved mineral matters which it bears on to the 
ocean. Thus again and again the rain drops 
have performed the voyage to the sea, each time 
laden with a little cargo of dissolved salts that 
had not been intercepted and evaporated. In 
this way the ocean has become very saline, as it 
is the receptacle for the saline matters which 
are washed out of the earth's crust, until the 



47 

average impurities of the Atlantic reaches 2139 
grains per gallon, while the Dead Sea contains 
19,736 grains of saline matter per gallon. 

Q. Which is the greatest mechanical power 
in nature? 

A. Simple water. 

Q. Why so? 

A. By its conversion into steam it drives 
locomotives, steam ships and industries of every 
description. It is also the greatest leveler ; it 
moves mountains and fills valleys ; it floats the 
ships from shore to shore and makes commercial 
intercourse possible with every inhabitable spot 
on the globe. All our stratified rocks, sand- 
stones, slates and limestones were formed by the 
action of water. 

Q. W T hat else do we owe to water ? 

A. We owe to water its solvent properties 
and its chemical action in metalic deposits, such 
as our iron, copper, zinc, gold and silver ores, 
and even coal. 

Q. What else? 

A. To its physical properties, its relation to 
heat, we owe all the phenomena of clouds, dew, 
rain, fog, snow and frost. It supports the 
plants, brings them mineral food from the soils 
and protects them from excessive heat. Animals 
depend upon it; yet it is only the agent 



48 

of the sun. It is the sun power that makes 
plants grow ; it is sun power that moves every- 
thing in the world, and water is merely the 
sun's agent. The loss of water would produce 
the same condition of things on earth that we 
now notice in the moon. 

Q. How much water is there in proportion 
to the earth ? 

A. 1-24000 part of the earth. The crytal- 
line rocks at the earth's surface now contain a 
larger quantity of water than this, and the mo- 
ment our earth cools enough to absbrb four 
thousands of one per cent of moisture the ocean 
will disappear. 

Q. If we lost our ocean what would happen ? 

A. We would loose our atmosphere, also the 
opening or pores in the rocks will receive the 
atmosphere by gravitation and we shall have 
the same conditions of things as now exist on 
the moon. Water is the great source of all our 
health and well being, and again at other times 
it brings disease and death. The subject par- 
ticularly in its relation to health as well as for 
steam purposes cannot be too carefully studied. 

Q. Can you tell the pressure in pounds per 
square inch of a column of water ? 

A. Yes, multiply the height in feet by .434 
approximately every foot of elevation is equal 



49 

to one-half pound pressure per square inch. 

Q. For what does this allow ? 

A. This allows for ordinary friction. The 
mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually esti- 
mated at 14 7-10 pounds per square inch, so 
that with a perfect vacuum of mercury 29 9-10 
inches, or a column of water 33 9-10 feet high. 

INJECTORS AND PUMPS. 



Injectors and pumps are known among the 
engineers as devices for supplying boilers with 
water, or for delivering liquid to any height by 
the help of steam. 

Q. Are there many kinds of pumps and in- 
jectors for feeding boilers? 

A. Yes, the old style single action plunger 
pump, with two valves, double action with four 
valves, and the duplex, with 8 — 16 — 32, etc., 
valves according to size (see illustrations.) The 
injectors are in two classes, namely, injectors 
and inspirators for feeding boilers. 

Q. State the reason for having more than 
eight water valves in duplex pumps. 

A. To prevent loss. of water when pump is 
working. 



/ 

50 




WORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMP. 



Q, Can you set the steam valve of a 
duplex pump ? 

A. Yes ; by lifting the valve chest cover, 
centering- or plumb the long- and short 
lever, then adjust both valves equally over 
the parts and the pump will be O. K. 

Q, How is it known when a pump is 
working* water ? 



51 

A. By the stroke of the pump or by the pet 
cock, steady stream and no air. 

Q. In connecting an inspirator or injector to 
draw water how should the connection be made ? 

A. On the boiler the connection should be 
from the highest dry steam point and direct 
from the boiler, and the water end should be as 
straight as possible, one size larger than connec- 
tion, and be sure suction pipe is air-tight. Do 
not try to work hot water, as the inspirator or 
injector will break connection. 

Q. How is an injector or inspirator cleaned 
inside of incrustation ? 

A. By placing the injector or inspirator in a 
bath composed of one part muriatic acid and 
eight parts soft water ; leave in bath over night. 

Q. Explain how w T ater is delivered in a 
boiler through the injector or inspirator. 

A. It is explained in this way : The water 
being drawn to the injector or inspirator by a 
vacuum it condenses the steam, and the steam 
condensed forms a light body moving at a high 
velocity and imparting its momemtum to the 
heavier body and forcing it along the feed-pipe 
into the boiler. Never use more steam than 
there is water to condense it. 

Q. How does one know when an injector or 
inspirator is at work or not ? 



52 



A. By the singing sound it has upon the 



ear. 



Q. Will an injector or inspirator work hot 
water ? 



STEAM 




INJECTOR, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL. 

A. It will not. 

Q. What is it that keeps the water mov- 
ing into the boiler? 

A. The continual flow of steam and its 
condensation. 

Q. State the velocity of 120 lbs. piossure 
through an inch pipe? 

A. Three thousand feet per second 



53 



Q. Suppose the injector will not work 
when it has always been reliable before; 
where would you look for the trouble? 

A. Look for it at steam and water supply. 

Q. If not there where would you look 
for it? 

A. See if enough water is in tank to 
supply injector, see if tank valve is open, 
see that the water is not too warm, not over 
150 deg. -Fahr., notice if hot water returns 
after injector is shut off, if not, then next 
notice if the supply water condenses all the 
steam, next uncouple tank hose and look 
for dirt and rubbish in the strainer. 

Q. What is the use of the steam nozzle? 

A. Its use is for the actuating steam jets 
to pass. 

Q. What is a combining tube? 

A. A combining tube is where the steam 
and water mixing takes place. 

Q. Explain the delivery tube? 

A. It is where the maximum velocity of 
the mixture Of steam and water is attained; 
also where the jet overcomes the counter 
pressure from the boiler. 

Q. Into how many classes may injectors 
be divided? 

A. Into two general classes, namely: 



54 



Lifting injectors, and non-lifting. These 
two classes may again be divided into single 
tube, double tube, self-adjusting, re-starting, 
open or closed overflow injectors. 

Q. How would you operate the " Moni- 
tor"? 

A. See that water valve is full open, then 
open steam jet valve; steam will blow 
through the overflow and lift the water. 
When water appears at the overflow, then 
open large steam valve more or less, accord- 
ing to pressure, and until the overflow " runs 
dry," then close the jet valve. 

Q. How is the injector stopped? 

A. Close main steam valve. 

Q. Is water regulated sometimes at water 
valve? 

A. Yes, when pressure is below 140 
pounds; from 140 to 200 pounds the injector 
will not need any regulation at wateir valves. 

Q. Can the feed-water in tank be heated? 

A. Yes, by closing overflow valve and 
opening steam valve, this prevents steam 
from escaping through the overflow and 
forces back into the tank through the suction. 

Q. How is the lever-handled " Monitor " 
injector operated? 

A. Pull out the lever a short distance to 



55 



lift the water ; when water runs from the 
overflow, steadily draw back the lever until 
the overflow stops. 

Q. Is it a good idea to give more steam 
after the overflow has stopped? 

A. No. It would cause the injector to 
break. 

Q. Will an injector take water from the 
tank, supposing there was no vent? 

A. No, it would break. 

Q. What generally causes an injector to 
break? 

A. The main causes are, namely: not 
enough water supply, straws, sticks, mud, 
cinders, passing through bad strainers, also 
corrosion or scale in the casing of the injec- 
tor, leaky joints and overheated water. 

The ordinary speed to run steam pumps is 
at the rate of ioo feet of piston travel per 
minute. The nearer pumps are placed to 
the water, the more easy will be the suction. 
When a vacuum is formed in a suction pipe 
the pressure of the external air forces the 
water up the pipe, provided the lift is not 
too great. Theoretically water can be lifted 
by vacuum thirty-three feet, but in prac- 
tice not more than twenty-three feet. 28j4 
feet can be realized, Water at a high tern- 



56 



perature cannot be raised any considerable 
height by suction, because vapor forms and pre 
Vents the formation of a vacuum. When pumps 
are used for hot water they must be placed very 
close to the fluid or be supplied from a head. 
Pumps cannot lift water heated to a temperature 
when steam forms in any quantity, and for this 
reason feed -water is never injected into a boiler 
at over 212 degrees and generally between 150 
and 200. Double action pumps keep up a steady 
stream and thus economize labor, as every stroke 
is effective. In single action, common plunger 
pumps, every other stroke works, which makes 
the double action by far the most economical. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to 
move a given quantity of water per minute (100 
feet of piston speed being the standard speed) 
divide the number of gallons by 4, extract the 
square root and the product will be the diametor 
of pump cylinder. To find the quantity of 
water elevated in one minute running, at 100 
feet of piston speed, square the diametor of the 
water cylinder in inches and multiply by four. 
Example : capacity of five inch cylinder is de- 
sired. The square of five inches is 25x4 = 100 
gallons per minute. From this should be de- 
ducted about 25 per cent, for actual service. 

The area of a steam piston multiplied by the 
steam pressure in pounds will equal the total 
pressure exerted. The area of water piston 
multiplied by pressure of water per square 
inches will equal the resistance. 



57 
COMBUSTION. 

Q. What is combustion? 

A. Combustion is an energetic chemical com- 
bination of oxygen with some other substance 
accompanied with light and heat. Tho sub- 
stance with which it combines is called fuel. 

Q. Name the products of perfect combustion ? 

A. The products are water, steam and car- 
bonic acid, and to assure it a sufficient high 
temperature and a sufficient supply of oxygen 
are necessary. 

Q. Give the different air spaces between 
grate bars for different coals. 

Lehigh Anthracite Pea Coal - One-quarter inch space. 
Schuylkill " " " - Three-eighth inch space. 

Lehigh Anthracite Chestnut Coal Three-eighth inch space. 

" " Stove Coal - One-half inch space. 

" " Broken Coal - Five-eighth inch space. 

Cumberland bituminous - Three-quarter inch space. 

Wood - - Three-quarter to^ne inch space. 

Saw dust - Three-sixteenth to one-quarter inch space, 

TEMPERATURES OF FIRES WITH COLOR. 

Appearance Tem. 

Red, just visible 977 

Red, duU 1290 

Red, Cherry dull 1470 . 

Red, Cnerryfull 1650 

Red, " clear, 1830 « White Dazzling 2730 



Fah. 


Appearance 


Tem. Fah. 


Deg. 


Orange, deep 


2010 Deg. 


n 


Orange, clear 


2190 " 


(C 


White heat 


2370 (i 


M 


White bright 


2550 '< 



58 

The foregoing table will enable the temperatures 
to be determined by the appearance of the fire. 
The first step towards affecting the combina- 
tion of any gas is to ascertain the quantity of 
air required to supply that amount of oxygen. 

Q. State the amount of air required to con- 
sume one pound of coal. 

A. It will require about 247^ cubic feet, or 
18 pounds. 

Q. State the amount of air there is in one 
pound? 

A. There is 13f cubic feet. 

Q. What is the comparative weight of nitro- 
gen to oxygen ? 

Q. It is five to one. Having ascertained the 
quantity of oxygen required for the saturation 
and combustion of the two constituents of car- 
buretted hydrogen, the remaining point to be 
decided is the quantity of air that will be 
required to supply this quantity of oxygen. 

Q. How is this determined? 

A, This is easily determined, as we know 
precisely the proportion which oxygen bears in 
volume to that of air, for as oxygen is 1-5 the 
bulk of the air, five volumes of the air will be 
necessarily required to produce one of oxygen, 
and as we want two volumes of oxygen for each 
volume of the gas, it follows, to obtain these 



59 

two volumes, we must provide ten volumes of 
air. 

Q. What does smoke indicate? 

A. Smoke is a sure evidence of improper 
combustion, but it does not follow that where 
there is no smoke combustion is perfect. The 
perfect combustion of coal in a furnace can only 
be affected by a sufficient supply of oxygen con- 
tained in the air in a proper manner. 

Q. What is necessary to kindle or burn any 
substance ? 

A. The substance must be heated to a cer- 
tain degree, and kept up to that temperature in 
order to burn. 

Q. When gas is being expelled from the coal 
in a furnace w r here is the greatest heat ? 

A. The greatest heat is in the gas, as no 
particle of solid coal (or rather coke) can burn 
while gas is being expelled a lump of coal may, 
however, be giving out gas in one place while it- 
has been expelled from another, and remaining 
coke already ignited. 

Q. Does coke produce smoke w T hile burning ? 

A. No; the duration of smoke, therefore, 
means the time during which the gas is distill- 
ing from the coal. In combustion the heat 
must be referred to the chemical union of the 
substances, and the luminosity to the high tem- 
perature. 



60 



Q. What is it that ignites the phosphor- 
ous on a match? 

A. Simply friction ignites it at 150 degs., 
and, in burning, it gives out heat enough to 
ignite the sulphur of the match at 500 degs., 
which in turn ignites the wood of the match 
at 800 degs., and by means of the last flame 
we ignite the kindlings, and in turn ignite the 
larger pieces of wood and the heat given out 
raises the temperature of the coal sufficiently 
for it to ignite at 1,000 degs.; and thus we see 
that the ignition of the coal is the last of a 
series of progressive steps, each increasing 
in temperature. 

Q. Will flame enter a tube of a boiler of 
ordinary size, if so, how far ? 

A. A flame never enters a tube more than a 
few inches from its mouth, no matter how near 
the tubes are placed to the surface of the fire, 
the flame is extinguished on entering them. 

Q. What is it that burns at the other end of 
the tube, if flame does not pass through ? 

A. It is an unignited compound, known? as 
carbonic oxide, which passes through and having 
a low igniting temperature takes fire after reach- 
ing the air at the top of the chimney or end of 
the flue, making a blue flame attending the con- 
version of carbonic oxide into carbonic acid. 

Q. Was this the flame that was extin- 
guished on entering the tube or flue ? 



61 



A. No, all the combustible matter contained 
in the flame at the moment of extinction is lost, 
as no benefit is gained by its burning at the 
creator of the chimney it can only impart that 
full heat by its complete combustion. 

Q. How many units of heat will one pound 
of coal yield ? 

A. One pound of coal will yield 13,000 units 
ten per cent, of which is wasted in radiation 
forty per cent, escapes up the chimney and fifty 
per cent, utilized. The combustion of coal is to 
a great extent a mystery. 

Q. How is the philosophy of combustion 
known ? 

A. The philosophy is known through chem- 
istry. 

Q. What is coal? 

A. Coal is a compound substance, and may 
be decomposed by heat in several distinct ele- 
ments. In combustion we deal principally with 
but two, viz: Carbon in the form of coke, and 
hydrogen, known as gas. These two elements 
practically contain the full heating properties of 
the coal. 

Q. Does coal commence to burn immediately 
when thrown upon the fire? 

A. No, before any burning can commence the 



62 

coal must suffer the preparatory process of de- 
composition. 

Q. What does the process of decomposition 
do with the coal ? 

A. It distills the gas, which ignites first and 
by its chemical union with the invisible oxygen 
of the air, forming water (or steam) after the gas 
is burned, the coke takes its turn and burns in 
exactly the same manner by combination with air 
forming carbonic acid. 

Q. What is about the total production of coal 
in the world at this date? 

A. About 400,000,000 tons annually, one-half 
of which is estimated used for making steam. 
The average value for boiler purposes is about 
$2.25 per ton, which gives an annual expendi- 
ture for steam of about four and one- half million 
dollars, from which it will be seen how largely 
even a small per cent of saving would add to 
the wealth of the world. 

THE STEAM ENGINE, 

The steam engine is a machine by means of 
which heat is converted into mechanical effect. 
The greatest economy reached in a single cylinder 
steam engine is 2 J pounds of coal per horse, 
power, per hour, (this has been reduced gradually 
from 10 pounds); the average engine uses 3£ 



63 

pounds of coal and wastes 93 per cent, of the 
energy delivered to it. The greater part of this 
loss is in the latent heat of the steam, which is 
exhausted into the atmosphere or condenser, and 
is unavoidable so far as now known. The fact 
still remains that many an ordinary engine uses 
four times as much steam for the same power as 
is required in the best engines ; the mechanical 
effect of steam in a cylinder is the product of 
mean pressure in lbs. and the distance through 
which it has passed. When steam travels "a 
full stroke" it exerts its greatest power; when 
cut off the average pressure must be taken. A 
large boiler is generally an advantage but it is 
not economy to use a large engine to develop 
small power In the general care of an engine 
particular attention should be given to keeping 
the valves and piston in good condition and free 
from leakage and a point of equal importance 
is the proper setting of the valves to admit and 
exhaust the steam without excessive cushion, 
wire drawing, etc. The use of the steam indica- 
tor is becoming very general, and in steam plants 
where they are applied at short intervals, any 
defects in the working of the engine are detected 
and promptly remedied, while, without the indi- 
cator, great waste of steam might continue for 
months without the knowledge of the engineer. 



64 




65 



Much has appeared in print on the subject 
of the indicator, but as such articles are gen- 
erally technical in their nature and unaccom- 
panied by illustrative diagrams, we publish 
such for convenient reference of our readers 
elsewhere in this work. 

Q. Give the proper sizes of steam and 
exhaust pipes for engines and pumps? 

A. The steam pipe from boiler to engine 
should be one-quarter the diameter of the 
cylinder and the exhaust one-third the diam- 
eter. 

Q. If your crank pin or boxes become 
hot, name a good cooling liquid? 

A. By dropping a few drops of ammonia 
in with the oil will cool the journal with 
great surprise. 

Q. At how many points does the rod 
push and pull on the crank pin? 

A. Only one. 

Q. Explain why so? 

A. Because the pin turns with the disc 
(or crank). 

Q. How much farther does the crank pin 
travel than the piston each revolution? 

A. It travels one-third farther. 

Q. How long does the piston stand still 
while the crank pin is making a revolution? 

A. The piston stands still one-sixteenth 
of a revolution or one-twelfth of a stroke. 

Q. When the crank pin is at half stroke, 
is the piston head in the center of the cylin- 
der from either dead point? 

A. No, when crank pin leaves a dead point 
and travels toward a half stroke, the piston 



66 



travels further than when the crank pin is 
traveling* from a half stroke to a dead point. 
Q. Give an explanation ? 

A. It depends upon the length of the con- 
necting rod, whether the piston is past the dead 
centre or not. 

Q. How do you understand the term clear- 
ance in an engine cylinder ? 

A. The term clearance means the unoccupied 
space between the valve face, cylinder head and 
piston head each end of the stroke. 

Q. Has any engine the same power each end 
of the cylinder. 

A. No, the end where the piston rod is con- 
nected, has the least power. 

Q. Explain some of the various causes of 
pounding about an engine ? 

A An engine being out of square, lost mo- 
tion in crank, cross head pin, or main journal 
boxes, crank pins not being square with the 
crank, caused by faulty workmanship, leaky 
piston rings, also valve unbalanced, crank discs 
and many others too numerous to mention. 

Q. How can one tell if a crank pin or wrist 
pin is out of square ? 

A. A good spirit level will detect the slightest 
deviation in this and may be applied as follows: 
disconnect rod from cross-head; and tighten to 



67 

crank pin so it can turn without side vibration ; 
place the rod in a position to move freely as crank 
is turned, attach a spirit level to the rod with a 
clamp at right angles or in line with the shaft. 
It cuts no figure if main shaft is not properly 
level. The bulb in the level should not change 
when the crank is turned. If the wrist pin is not 
set squarely, the level will be tipped from side to 
side, as the crank turns, and the place the bulb 
is at different points in the revolution will show 
the direction the wrist takes from that of the 
correct position. The same answer for cross head. 

Q. Give a eood way of lining a shaft without 
rem'". ,mg same? 

A. The better way is to ;se specially pre- 
pared tools, if none are handy, draw a line along 
the shaft about twelve inches to one side and 
parallel to its centre, then take an ordinary level 
and level shaft to line. Poorly fitted couplings 
and shaft often give great annoyance, it will re- 
quire more pow T er to run and no matter how much 
lining is done the same trouble is there. 

Q. Give a good point for lining an engine? 

A. Draw a seagrass line centrally through the 
cylinder and fasten to crank end of bed plate, 
then try crank pin at both dead points on line* 
and bring* equal, then plumb at upper and 
lower half-strokes. 



68 



Q. Explain the term cushion in a cylin- 
der? 

A. The cushion is the resistance between 
the cylinder and piston head by steam, 
through the lead the valve has as the piston 
is reaching the dead centre or end of stroke. 

Q. Give rule to measure connecting rods ? 

A. Find striking point in the cylinder, 
then mark on guides each end, then find 
full stroke of crank, the difference between 
striking points and the stroke is the clear- 
ance, divide the clearance by 2 and that is 
the clearance for each end of cylinder, then 
take measure for rods from outside centre of 
cross head pin and centre of crank pin. 

Q. How are these measurements taken? 

A. With a tram. 

THE LUBRICATOR. 

Q. How is the oil delivered from the oil 
reservoir to steam chest? 

A. Through the reach oil pipe connect- 
ing lubricator with chest. 

Q. Of what use are the small valves over 
sight feed glasses? 

A. They are to close in case of a broken 
-glass. 



69 



Q. Are there any other valves between 
the lubricator and steam chest? 

A. No. 

Q. Why not? 

A. Because there is no need of any, as 
the sight feed valve answers all the purpose. 

Q. What do you look to when about to 
fill the lubricator? 

A. See that the two sight feeds are 
closed and the steam valve between boiler 
and lubricator, then open lower drip first, 
then the filling plug to leave out water. 

Q. After filling, what is done? 

A. Open steam valve first. 

Q. Why? 

A. So as to get the boiler pressure in the 
condensed chamber and in oil tanks. 

Q. Suppose you filled the tank with oil 
when cold, would you open steam valve or 
not? 

A. Open valve. 

Q, Why? 

A. To have everything in working order 
and when the condensed valve is opened the 
lubricator will be ready to feed when feed 
valves are opened. 

Q. How often should the lubricator be 
cleaned out? 



70 



A. It should be blown out every trip. 

Q. Why ? 

A. So to be sure that everything is in 
working order. 

Q. Suppose one of the sight feed glasses 
become broken or inoperative, can the sight 
feed on the other side be used ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Are there more than one or two sight 
feeds on one lubricator, if so, for what pur- 
pose are they ? 

A. There are lubricators with three sight 
feeds for locomotives, two are for the cylin- 
ders, and the third is for the steam cylinder 
of the air pump. 

Q. Explain the workings of the lubrica- 
tor, also state the weight of water and oil? 

A. The lubricator is operated by the con- 
densed water from the condense chamber 
above the lubricator* The weight of water 
is 8 pounds and the weight of oil is y}4 
pounds, therefore the oil being the lighter 
it floats to the top. 

Q. If oil floats to the top and water goes 
to the bottom, why is it that no water passes 
up through the sight feeds and the oil back 
up through the condensed chamber into the 
boiler ? 



71 



A. The construction of the lubricator 
prevents it. 

Q. Explain the construction of the inside 
of lubricator, oil tank, etc.? 

A. The condense chamber is connected 
to a steam tight drip pipe from neck of con- 
densing chamber reaching within y x inch of 
the bottom of the oil reservoir, and this pipe 
prevents the oil from working up into the 
boiler. The sight feeds are connected the 
opposite way, the oil pipe reaches from the 
top of oil reservoir to the bottom of sight 
feed below regulating valve. 






STEEL SQUARE. 

The steel square is the most valuable tool 

any mechanic can have. The standard 

square ioo has a tongue from fourteen to 

eighteen inches long and i^ inches wide, 



72 

also a blade two inches wide and twenty-four 
inches long. The two are at right angles 
with each other. The square has inches, 
half-inches, quarter-inches, eighths, six- 
teenths and thirty-seconds. Another portion 
of the square is divided in a scale of twelfths 
meaning twelve feet to the inch, used for 
measuring drawings, blue prints, etc. 

Q. What is a centesimal scale? 

A. A centesimal scale is a scale for 
dividing a unit into one hundred equal parts. 

Q. What is a diagonal scale and where is 
it? 

A. The diagonal scale is on the tongue 
near blade, and is called diagonal on account 
of its diagonal lines. 

Q. Where is the plank, board and scant- 
ling 1 measure found on the scale? 

A. It will be found on one side of the 
blade, running parallel with the length, and 
by the nine lines divided at interval of one 
inch into sections or spaces by cross lines. 

Q. Give an example; say a board 12 feet 
long and 6 inches wide? 

A. Look on the outer edge of the blade, 
we will find 12; between the 5th and 6th 
lines under 12, will be found 12 again; this 
is the length of the board. Now follow the 



73 

space along toward the tongue till we come 
to cross line under 6 (on the edge of 
blade), this being the width of the board; in 
the space will be found the figure 6 again, 
which is the answer in board measure, viz.," 
3 feet. 

Q. Is there another style of board measure 
on the square? 

A. Yes, on one side of the blade 9 lines, and 
cross lines diagonally to the right will be found 
and rows of figures as 7 ones, 7 twos, 7 threes* 
etc., this style gives the number of feet in a 
board according to its length and width. 

Q. How does one know where to find the 
brace rule on the square? 

A. The brace rule is two parallel lines in the 
centre of the tongue, one-half inch apart with 
figures between them. Near extreme end of 
tongue will be found 24-24 and to the right of 
these 33-95. 

Q. What is meant by 24-24 and 33-95 ? 

A. The 24-24 means the right angle — triangle 
while the 33-95 indicates the length of the brace, 
This rule explains the use of any of the brace 
rule figures. 

Q. Where is the octagon scale to be found? 

A. On the opposite side of the tongue from 
the brace rule, between two central parallel lines* 

Q. How is the space divided? 



74 

A. It is divided into intervals and numbered 
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60. 

Q* Suppose it becomes necessary to describe 
an octagon 10 inches square: what would you do? 

A. Draw a square 10 inches each way and 
bisect the square with a horizontal and perpen- 
dicular centre line. 

Q. How is the length of the octagon line 
found? 

A. Place one point of the compasses in cen- 
tre of square, and the other at corner of square? 
then scribe an arc from the corner of square to 
perpendicular line, then bisect a line at meeting 
point of arc and perpendicular line to corner of 
square, find centre of this line, the distance from 
perpendicular line to where centre line inter- 
sects square line, is one-half the length of each 
diagonal. 

Q. How is the circumference of a barrel head 
or cylinder head divided into seven parts? 

A, To divide a circle into 7 equal parts, scribe 
a quarter circle, then place dividers on circum- 
ference line, then scribe an arc from centre, and 
intersect circumference. Now draw a chord line 
or parallel line from the two points on circle, 
and the distance from centre of chord, or straight 
line to centre of circle is exactly one-seventh of 
full circumference, 



75 
VALVE MOTION. 

Q. Of what does the valve motion of a com- 
mon slide valve consist? 

A. The motion consists of an eccentric rock- 
er-arm valve, valve rod, eccentric rod straps, etc. 

Q. Explain the setting of a common single 
eccentric valve motion ? 

A. Move the eccentric in direction engine is 
to be run, until valve has proper lead, say -^ 
inch, then tighten temporarily with set screws, 
move crank-pin over to other dead centre and see 
how lead is there, if equal valve is set. If not 
divide the difference by moving the valve with 
with nuts \ it is out on the valve gear. Then 
go through the same performance as in first 
setting and valve will come right. 

Q. Give the proper exhaust for valve? 

A. Double the steam lead. 

LOCOMOTIVE, LINK MOTION, VALVE SETTING. 

Valve setting with two eccentrics. — Many 
questions have been asked in reference to set- 
ting link motion valve, so we have here clearly 
explained it with language easy to comprehend 
in questions and answers. 

Q. How would you go about setting a link 
motion valve? 



76 



A. Adjust everything about the valve mo- 
tion necessary, tram the driver for dead center 
of pin, and also tram the valve stem for open- 
ing point when valve chest cover is on. 

Q. Suppose the engine to be set was a 18x24 
inch and the upper and lower rocker-arm 
straight and of equal length, the eccentric blades 
are connected to the link, so the block in full 
gear is opposite, what will this equal ? 

A. This will make the extreme travel of 
the valve equal to the eccentric throw. 

Q. To what should particular notice be 
given in commencing to set a valve with link 
motion and reverse lever ? 

A. That the eccentric blades are in straight 
line, and the go-ahead eccentric blade is con- 
nected to top of link and the back-up to bot- 
tom of link, also that link is about plumb and 
valve centrally over the ports. Place the re- 
serve lever in forward last notch and crank-pin 
on forward dead center (toward cylinder); 
suppose lead is to be A inch, move forward 
eccentric ahead until the tram inserts the 
forward punch mark on valve stem and the 
stationary mark on stuffing box, then tighten 
the eccentric temporarily, move the reverse 
lever to back motion (full); move driver 
enough to take up lost motion and bring 
back to dead center, forward again, and move 



77 

the back-up eccentric until the tram touches 
both punch-marks, and stationary and stem 
mark. 

Q. Does the valve occupy the same position 
for forward and back gear when the pin is at 
either dead centre ? 

A. Yes ; move the pin to back dead-centre, 
first placing the reverse lever in forward last 
notch, and tram the stem the same as where the 
pin was at forward dead centre. If the lead is 
the same for both full forward and full back 
notch the setting is O. K., if only one cylinder; 
if double cylinders the opposite side must be 
gone through the same way. Go over the points 
a second time to be sure that everything is O. K. 

Q. What is meant by a blind in valve set- 
ting? 

A. The lap of the valve. 

Q. Suppose when the engine is turned on 
opposite centre and a blind is found, what does 
it indicate? 

A. It indicates that the eccentric blade is 
too long. 

Q. Then what is to be done? 

A. Shorten the blade until the tram inserts 
the opening point, then move the pin over to 
other dead point and the valve here will be 
found to have lost its lead, but the valve move- 



78 



merit at each dead point has been altered there- 
by, so that the opening at each steam port is just 
beginning. Advance the eccentric to get y 1 ^ lead, 
then tighten, and it will be noticed that the 
other end will be affected the same way, subject 
the opposite motion to same treatment and all 
will come right. 

HORSE POWER. 

Q, Explain the mechanical interpretation of 
the unit of measure (horse power.) 

A. It is generally known to be a unit of 
measure as applied to the steam engine, elec- 
tricity or any other power that can be converted 
into useful effect. The term " horse power" 
came into effect with the building of the first 
engine, and it has been traced back to a man by 
the name of Watt. 

Q. Why is it called horse power ? 

A. Because it was taken from the actual 
power of the horse, and then applied to the 
steam engine. 

Q. How was it taken from the power of a 
horse ? 

A. The general traveling g*ait of a horse 
hitched to a light sulky is about five miles an 
hour or four hundred and forty feet per minute. 
If we were to attach to the single-tree a scale 
we would know the amount of actual power the 
horse was exerting. Suppose it to be seventy- 



79 

five pounds the product of the speed, 440 ; mul- 
tiply 75X440 = 33,000 pounds, which would 
represent one-horse power. 

Q. What would you do to apply this to the 
steam engine? 

A. To apply this to the steam engine, first 
determine the area of the piston head face, next 
the number of feet traveled by the piston, then 
the average pressure used in the cylinder, and 
divided by 33,000 pounds, and the answer will 
be the horse power of engine. 

Q. Would the steam gauge pressure be 
right? 

A. No, the steam guage pressure would not 
be correct, but by using an instrument known 
as the indicator, after being attached to a cylin- 
der, would give it exactly. 

Q. Give an example. 

A. Engine 30 inch stroke, making 100 revo- 
lutions per minute, the piston travels 60 inches 
each revolution or five feet = 500 feet piston 
travel per minute, diameter of piston 17 inches 
= 227 area, average pressure 40 pounds. The 
example then will be 40 X 227 X 500-^33,000= 
137^ horse power, (about). 

Q. Give the rule for finding the horse power 
of a belt's transmission? 

A. To find horse power that can be trans- 



80 

mitted by a belt, multiply the width of the belt 
in feet by the number of hundred feet the belt 
has traveled in one minute. Example, belt two 
feet wide running 2000 feet per minute, 2 X 20 = 
40 horse power. 

Q. How is the width found if a certain num- 
ber of horse power is needed? 

A. Divide horse power by speed in hundreds 
of feet per minute, answer equals width of belt 
in feet. 

The proper and free working of a governor is 
an important matter for an engineer to consider. 
All the working surface of the governor should 
be in proper running condition, and such a 
quantity of oil used as will not gum up after it 
has been applied for a time. The oil pot, or 
dash pot, should have a constant supply of oil 
to retard its motion, and the oil should be heavy 
enough to prevent violent fluctuations. In 
speeding up an engine the speed of the regula- 
tor should also be changed so that the. governor 
may work at a higher speed, and the governor 
weighted to bring the balls in about the same 
plane of station as of old. It is very frequently 
the fact engines are speeded up without any 
change in the speed of the governor. 



81 




STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR. 



After the motion of levers are correctly 
set up, apply the indicator and obtain a dia- 
gram. It now remains to consider what this 
diagram is and what can be determined 
from it. 

When the mathematician or statiscian de- 

6 



82 

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84 



sires to record the result of a series of ob- 
servations or experiments in such a manner 
that they may at once be apparent and 
easily comprehended, he has recourse to 
what is known as the graphic method. Sup- 
pose, for instance, it was desired to repre- 
sent in this way the result of a series of 
observations of the temperature of feed 
water during the test; take a piece of paper 
ruled in squares as represented in figure i, 
page 82, which is known as ordinate paper, 
we set off the time upon one of the horizontal 
lines, as shown at the bottom of the figure, 
and allowing two spaces for each fifteen 
minutes to represent one degree of temper- 
ature, making the lines so figured to corres- 
pond to 175, 180 and 185 degrees. Now at 
ten o'clock the observations showed 176 
degrees, so upon the line representing that 
time and at a height representing 176 we 
make a dot fifteen minutes later the temper- 
ature had gone up to 178 degrees and upon 
the line represented 10:15 and at a height 
representing 178 another dot is made. Con- 
tinuing in this way to represent the result of 
each observation and connecting the dots by 
lines we obtain a diagram showing at a 
glance how nearly regular the pressure was 



85 



maintained through the test, to what extent 
it varied, and at what time the variations 
occurred. 

Let us apply this method to the variation 
of pressure in the cylinder of a steam en- 
gine. Suppose we have an engine with a 
stroke of 48 inches, cutting off at % stroke, 
with steam at 60 pounds and a variation of 
12 pounds. In figure 2, page 83, let the line 
o represent the pressure of the atmosphere; 
i.e., the zero pressure of a steam gauge, and 
set off upon it 48 spaces to correspond with 
the 48 inch stroke of the engine. Now, at 
the beginning of the stroke at A, steam is 
admitted, and calling each vertical division 
3 pounds we set off 60 pounds upon the line 

A, B; this pressure is supposed to be main- 
tained for a quarter stroke, and thus for 12 
of the horizontal divisions the pressure 
would be represented by the horizontal line 

B. C. At the point C the supply of steam 
to the cylinder is cut off and the pressure 
behind the receding piston falls by expan- 
sion. The pressure for any position of the 
piston can be easily calculated by a method 
which will be explained at the proper time. 
Placing upon the vertical lines representing 
each inch of the stroke a dot representing a 



86 



corresponding pressure and connecting these 
dots we have a curved line representing the 
variations of pressure during expansion, at 
the point D, two inches from the end of the 
stroke, the exhaust valves supposed to have 
opened for release, allowing the pressure to 
gradually fall along the line D, E, F, to that 
of the condenser, 12 pounds below the 
atmospheric line. This is the pressure which 
should be before the piston on its return 
movement up to the point G, four inches 
from the end of stroke where the exhaust 
valve is supposed to have closed for com- 
pression, and the pressure of the enclosed 
steam is raised along the curve G, A. 

Now, the steam engine indicator applied 
to this engine would produce a diagram 
more or less approaching this theoret- 
ical form, the pressure being measured by 
the vertical movement ol the indicator pis- 
ton and the piston movement of the engine 
by the movement of the paper drum which 
is directly derived from it, as heretofore 
described. It furnishes us with a graphic 
representation of the distribution of pressure 
in that end of the engine cylinder to which it 
is attached for a complete revolution. By 
its means we are able to see at once whether 



87 



the various operations occur on time with 
reference to the piston movement, how 
nearly the boiler pressure is realized in the 
cylinder; at what point it is cut off and how 
much bei efit the engine derives from the 
vacuum in the condenser. We are also 
furnished with the necessary data for calcu- 
lating the average pressure of the piston 
during the stroke, and from this determine 
how much work it is doing, and as the dis- 
tribution of this pressure is apparent w r e are 
able to calculate its rotative effect upon the 
crank-pin at any point in the stroke in con- 
nection with the momentum and inertia of 
the reciprocating parts. 

In fact a properly taken diagram w T ith all 
data concerned is full of interest and instruc- 
tion, and its study can be carried to great 
refinement. The most simple rule for figur- 
ing the diagram is to set down the length of 
the spaces formed by the veitical lines from 
the base in measurements of a scale accom- 
panying the indicator, and en which a tenth 
of an inch usually represents a pound press- 
ure; add up the total length of all the spaces, 
which will give the main length, or the main 
pressure upon the piston in pounds per 
square inch. Example, lay the indicator 



88 



card off in ten parts, and knowing the scale 
to be sixty, and the ordinates (or parts) ten, 
and the sum of their length, six inches=6- 
10 .6X60=36.0 36 pounds pressure against 
piston. 

Q. How do we understand the horse 
power of an engine. 

A. The horse power of an engine is equal 
to lifting 33, coo pounds one foot high in one 
minute. 

Q. How is the horse power calculated? 
Give various simple rules. 

A. Rule one, multiply the area of piston 
head face in square inches by the steam 
pressure in pounds, and the answer by the 
travel of piston in feet per minute, and divide 
by 33,000. This will give the nominal horse 
power. For actual horse power deduct Yi in 
automatic and J^ in slide valve engines. Ex- 
ample: engine 12X24, speed 100 revolu- 
tions per minute, boiler pressure, 80 pounds 
piston area, 113 square inchesX8o=9,04oX 
400, feet traveled=3, 616,000 +■ 33,000=109 
nominal horse power, or 73 actual horse 
power, in automatic cut off engines, or 54% 
horse power in slide valve engines. This 
reduction is made for friction, average pres- 



8 9 



sure, condensation, etc., and is found to be 
quite correct in practice. 

To find horse power to elevate water a 
given height. 

Total weight of water in pounds multiplied 
by height in feet, divided by 33,000, equals 
horse power. 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAK DOWNS. 

Q. How and when do you block the 
crosshead when disconnecting? 

A. Ports should be covered first, before 
blocking crosshead. With some of the 
mogul engines the crosshead should be 
blocked in front end of guides on account 
of piston rod key being so long and catching 
the pin on forward driver. Some of the 
mogul engines, with all side rods down, key 
in crosshead will strike pin on front wheel. 

Q. How do you keep the packing rings 
out of the counter bore? 

A. When disconnecting, I would put a 
small piece of wood between end of cross- 
head and end of guides. 

Q. Would you take out the cylinder cock 
at the end piston is in? 

A. Not necessarily, if the crosshead is 
well blocked. 



9° 



O. What would you do if main rod strap 
or crosshead should break? 

A. With a broken main rod strap, I 
would place valve over steam ports and 
clamp valve stem, disconnect valve rod, take 
down main rod and broken strap, and block 
crosshead. If crosshead broke and did not 
come off piston rod, would block it in back 
end of guides. If piston broke off cross- 
head, would push crosshead and piston to 
forward end of guides and block it there, if 
it did not knock out cylinder head. 

Q. What is done if side rod or back pin 
breaks? 

A. If side rod or back pin breaks, take 
down both side rods. 

Q. Can all four-wheeled switch engines 
be run with the side rods down? 

A. No; on some switch engines the 
eccentric is on the forward shaft, and the 
main rod connected to the back wheels. On 
some of them, with both side rods down, a 
crosshead key would strike the pin on the 
front w T heel and would have to be cut off 
or else driven out, and a liner put in along- 
side of the key, so as not to allow it to go 
through too far. 



91 



Q. Why do you take rods down on the 
opposite side to that broken? 

A. Because if left up, and the engine 
should slip, the back wheels while on the 
center are liable to slip out of tram and 
break the rod or pin. 

O. What is the effect of sanding the rail 
while engine is slipping, without first shutting 
off steam. 

A. It is liable to break a crank pin or 
rod. 

Q. Is it good policy to allow sand to run 
from one pipe only? 

A. No; it is liable to twist the driving 
axle or break a pin. The adhesion of the 
engine to the rails is nearly all on one side, 
and has a tendency to twist. 

Q. How do you block up an engine with 
a broken driving spring or hanger? 

A. If main spring was broken, or hanger, 
run back wheels up on wedge, and block 
between main box and frame, then move 
back wheel off wedge and run main wheel 
upon wedge and block end of equalizer up 
level, and take out broken parts of spring 
and hanger. 

Q. With broken equalizer? 

A. Would take out broken equalizer and 



92 



springs, and block up the same as with broken 
driving spring. 

Q. With broken engine truck, spring, or 
hanger? 

A. Would raise front end of engine up, 
and block up on top of truck equalizers. 

Q. With broken intermediate equalizer 
on mogul? 

A. Would run main drivers up on wedges, 
then block between top of forward driving 
boxes and frame, then take out broken parts 
of equalizer. 

Q. With broken engine truck center pin 
on mogul, what is to be done? 

A. Would block up, the same as with 
intermediate equalizer, but, in addition to 
this, would have to block up forward end of 
intermediate equalizer to keep it off truck 
axle. 

Q. What do you do when a tire breaks 
and comes off the wheel on a standard en- 
gine? 

A. If tire broke and came off main wheel 
and did not injure the rods, would leave rods 
up and take out oil-cellar, take down ped- 
estal brace and put block of wood up under 
shaft, putting brace up again, then run main 
wheel up on wedge, then block up between 



93 



top of back box and frame and block be- 
tween main-spring saddle and frame, then 
run wheel off wedge, and you are ready to 
go. With back tire broken off, if the engine 
had to be backed up any distance on crooked 
track, would take both side rods off and 
carry both back wheels off the rail by run- 
ning them up on two wedges and block up 
on top of both main boxes under frame, and 
block under both back-spring saddles and 
put a block on top of bar between engine 
and tender and under chaffing iron on en- 
gine, and carry part of the weight of engine 
on tank, and would block under both oil- 
cellars. 

Q. With front tire on mogul or ten- wheel 
engine? 

A. If broke front tire of mogul, and it 
was not safe to run, and could not get tire 
off, would take down all side rods then run 
front wheels up on wooden wedges and 
block up on top of both main boxes under 
the frame and under both spring saddles on 
top of frame and block under male casting 
of engine truck and on top of female cast- 
ing; some large nuts would be the best to 
use to block up between these castings; take 
a piece of telegraph wire and run through 



94 



holes in the nuts and fasten thein solid 
around the male casting, and drive block 
under each oil -cellar of the wheels which 
are carried off the rail and move engine off 
the wedges and you are ready to go. 

Q. Main tire on mogul? 

A. If main tire on mogul broke and came 
off and injured side rods or main rod, would 
take down all side rods and place valve over 
steam ports, clamp valve stem, disconnect 
valve rod and take down main rod, and if 
piston rod key would strike front pin, would 
block crosshead in forward end of guides, 
would take oil-cellar out of wheel with tire 
off, take down pedestal brace, and put a 
hardwood block under shaft, then put ped- 
estal brace up again, run wheel up on 
wooden wedge and block up on top of back 
box under frame, and on top of front box 
under frame, and block between saddle and 
frame over wheel that is off the rail, then 
run engine off the wedge and you are ready 
to go. If tire is broken and it is not safe to 
run and could not be gotten off on the road, 
would take down all side rods; if I could 
run the engine on the wedges, would run 
both wheels up and block up on top of both 
back boxes under frame and on top of both 



95 



front boxes under frame, drive a block un- 
der each oil-cellar and block under both 
main spring saddles, then cover steam ports 
on both sides and clamp valve stems and 
disconnect valve rods, take down both main 
rods, and if piston rod keys will strike front 
pins, block the crosshead in front end of 
guides, or the center of guides, and you are 
ready to be towed in. Engine will have to 
be moved off from wedges with another 
engine or pinch bar. 

Q. With the back tire on mogul? 

A. If back tire on mogul broke and came 
off and did not injure side rods, would take 
out oil-cellar and put wooden block under 
shaft, then run wheel up on wedge and 
block between top of main box and frame, 
then move engine off wedge and you are 
ready to go. 

Q. With both back tires on mogul? 

A. If tire broke and did not come off, 
and you could not get it off on the road and 
it was not safe to run, would take down both 
back sections of side rods and run both back 
wheels up on w T edges, block up between 
both main boxes and frames, then block on 
top of bar between engine and tender under 
chaffing iron on engine, drive a block under 



96 



each oil-cellar and block under both back 
spring saddles and you are ready to go. 
You could not back up around curves on ac- 
count of both main tires being blind. If I 
have to back an engine up to get home, I 
would run her ahead to the nearest turntable 
or "Y" and turn around if it was not too far. 
If I could get to a turntable or "Y" by 
backing up two or three miles, I would drop 
the wheel with the broken tire on the rail 
and cut a pole and put it between the 
spokes of the wheels and against the frames 
and skid back wheels; If I could not get a 
pole, I would use a chain; If both tires came 
off the wheels, would chain from end of 
frame to front beam of tender on each side 
and the tender would help to guide the 
wheels. 

Q. What would you do if back tire or 
back driver was broken off on standard 
engine? 

A. Would jack up back, take down side 
rods on standard engine, or back rods on 
mogul. 

Q. At what points is weight of engine 
carried when springs and equalizers are in 
good order? 



97 



A. The weight is carried on both equal- 
izing stands and center of engine truck. 

Q. Where is the weight carried when 
engine is blocked up over the forward driv- 
ing box? 

A. When blocked over the main box the 
weight is the same as with the main spring 
in, but when the engine is in motion and the 
main wheel drops in a low spot in the track 
the weight of the main box is carried on the 
back spring and engine truck, and if main 
wheel runs up on a high spot in track, the 
main box would take the weight off the back 
spring and engine truck. The equalization 
of the weight between the boxes is destroyed 
when blocked over the boxes when the 
engine is in motion. 

Q. How is it when blocked over back 
driving box? 

A. When blocked over the back driving 
box, the weight is the same as with the 
springs in, but when the engine is running 
and the back wheel drops in a low spot in 
the track, the weight from off the back box 
comes on the main spring and engine truck. 
And if main wheel runs up on a high spot 
in the track the most of the weight would 
be on main spring alone. And if main 
1 



98 



wheel drops in a low spot the weight would 
be on back box and engine truck. 

Q. If truck axle was bent? 

A. Slide the wheels by chaining same. 

Q. How would you know if valve yoke 
was broken? 

A. Place main pin on right side at half 
stroke (giving valve full movement over 
ports), admit a little steam into the chest 
and move the reverse lever forward and 
back, if steam shifts from forward to back 
cylinder cocks the right valve yoke is O. K. 
Then try the left side the same way. If yoke 
is broken, take off chest cover, center and 
block valve equally over both ports, discon- 
nect the main and valve rods, block cross- 
head, cover chest and proceed to nearest 
side track or telegraph station. 

Q. If throttle was detached while running 
how would you act? 

A. If valves were balanced, would control 
train with reverse lever and air valve. 

Q. Suppose right go-ahead eccentric slipped 
what would you do? 

A. Place right side of engine on forward 
dead center, place reverse lever in last back 
notch, mark valve stem at gland, bring 
reverse lever to forward last notch and move 



99 



slipped eccentric until mark on valve stem 
reaches gland. 

Q. If right back-motion eccentric should 
slip? 

A. Place right side of engine on back 
dead center, place reverse lever in forward 
last notch, mark valve stem at gland, throw 
lever in last back notch, move eccentric until 
mark on valve reaches gland. 

Q. Suppose both forward and back 
eccentric on one side slipped what would 
you do? 

A. Simply place engine on forward dead 

center (as near as possible), set the forward 

motion eccentric above the shaft heavy side 

up, for in right angles with the crank-pin, set. 

the back-up eccentric opposite the go-ahead; 

after this is done place the reverse lever 

in forward notch, then move the forward 

eccentric ahead until steam comes out of 

forward cylinder cock. To set back-up 

eccentric, place reverse lever in last back 

notch, move eccentric until steam comes out 

of forward cylinder cock, then all is O. K. 

Be careful when doing this, that engine 

wheels are blocked and throttle slightly 

open. 

Q. In case of broken back section of side 
LofC. 



100 



rods on a 6 driver engine, what would you 
do? 

A. Take off back sections, each side of 
engine, then pull in as much of the train as 
possible. 

Q. Suppose through some unforseen cause 
a cylinder head was broken what would 
you do? 

A. Disconnect the valve stem at rocker 
arm, tighten valve equally over ports, dis- 
connect mainrod and block the crosshead in 
guides. 

Q. Suppose rocker arm is broken? 

A. Disconnect same as for broken cylin- 
der head. 

Q. If valve stem or piston were broken? 

A. Do same as for broken cylinder head. 

Q. Suppose valve in chest were broken 
how would you remedy it? 

A. Lift valve chest cover, cover ports 
with thin plank, place valve over same and 
block that way; if a balanced valve and 
nothing could be placed under valve then 
open front end and disconnect dry pipe from 
nigger head end, bolt on a blind joint made 
of sheet rubber and heavy board or iron plate. 

Q. Suppose you lost a rod key how would 
you proceed? 



101 



A. Insert a wooden key temporarily. 

Q. If broken valve stem outside of chest? 

A. Center valve and clamp with gland 
by drawing up more on one side. 

Q. What is the best material to use in 
blocking between driving box and frame? 

A. Iron plates; wood is too soft. 

Q. If driving box or brass breaks so it is 
cutting the axle, what can be done to relieve 
it? 

A. If main box brass is cutting badly, 
run main wheel upon a wedge, and block 
under saddle and on top of frame, also be- 
tween frame and top of back box, that will 
carry some of the weight. 

Q. Is it considered an engineer's duty to 
have suitable hardwood blocks on engine? 

A. Yes. 

Q. How would you block up for broken 
engine truck wheel or axle? 

A. Raise up front of engine and block 
between top of main boxes and frames and 
block on top of back truck boxes under 
truck frames and block across on top of both 
back truck boxes under main frames and 
carry the weight of the front wheels on the 
back ones and forward drivers, then chain 
front wheel up to front frame; then pull into 



102 



side tracks, best way is to send for pair of 
wheels and put in on road. 

Q. What would you do with a mogul or a 
pony truck when broken? 

A. Would run main wheels up on wedges, 
being careful that main rods do not strike 
guide yokes and frames, then chain engine 
truck up to main frame and all is ready. 

Q. For broken tender truck wheel or axle 
what should be done? 

A. Take out wheels and replace with 
box-car wheels, or if wheels could not be 
had, why take two poles and lay them length- 
wise on top of the truck boxes on each side 
of tender and chain up the truck to the poles 
where the wheels come out. With some 
tenders, would have to put pole across top 
of tender and chain to pole. 

Q. Is it necessary to take down the main 
rod if the frame is broken between the 
cylinder and the forward driving box? 

A. No, not always; it all depends on how 
badly it is broken. 

Q. Would you take down either rod if 
frame is broken between forward and back 
driving boxes? 

A. Not with a light engine, unless it was 
working badly; then I would take down both 



103 

side rods, because the strain would come on 
the pins. 

Q. Where is the frame fastened solid to 
the other parts of the engine? 

A. On standard engine frame is fastened 
to cylinder saddle, and belly-brace under 
boiler, and boiler braces in cab. 

Q. Would you disconnect the engine for 
a broken guide? 

A. Yes, if it was broken badly. 

Q. How do you handle an engine if 
throttle sticks open or dry pipe joint leaks so 
that steam cannot be shut off from engine? 

A. Reduce the pressure and handle the 
engine with reverse lever and brake on en- 
gine. 

Q. What will you do if throttle is discon- 
nected and remains shut? 

A. I would report and get her ready for 
towing in. 

Q. If a crank pin brass gets so hot the 
babbitt melts, would you cool it off with 
water before all the babbitt comes out? 

A. No, I would allow it all to escape. 

Q. Can you take out a tender truck brass 
and replace it with a new one? How? 

A. Yes; would take waste all out of box. 
take short jack and put under box and jack 



104 



the weight up off brass, then take out step 
and remove brass. If I had no short jack, 
would take large screw jack and place under 
side of tank and jack the weight off box, 
then take a pry and pry up the box. If I 
had no jacks I would put block of wood 
under the box and against a tie and move 
the engine and pull the box up on the block, 
and that would take the weight off brass. 

Q. An engine truck brass? 

A. Would raise up front of the engine, 
and take weight off truck box, then raise up 
truck frame and box with short jack or a 
pry, and replace brass. 

Q. When brass does not wear an even 
thickness at both ends, is it apt to run hot? 
Why? 

A. Yes; truck frame may be twisted, and 
allow the weight to bear on one end of the 
brass, and cause it to heat, axles sprung 
lightly would cause this effect, or only part 
of a step being on top of brass in box, or 
brass a little too long and one end bears on 
collar. 

Q. How often do you examine the ash- 
pan, grates and dampers? 

A. At the end of every trip. 



105 



Q. What are your duties after cutting off 
from train at the end of the trip? 

A. To look the engine over carefully, 
and any work there is to be done, report it 
in the book at the roundhouse for that pur- 
pose. 

Q. What are your duties in case of wreck, 
when your engine is off the track? 

A. Examine the engine over* carefully, 
to see if anything is broken, especially 
around firebox, and get her ready to be put 
on the track as soon as I possibly could. 

Q. If front end is broken, but flues and 
steam pipes in good order, how could you 
make repairs on it to run in? 

A. Would board up front end of smoke 
box if there was enough left to hold the 
boards. 

THE AIR BRAKE. 

Q. To the best of your knowledge what 
do you understand by the automatic air 
brake? 

A. The automatic air brake is a brake 
applied by compressed air. 

Q. Why is it called automatic? 

A. Because its application is due to 
derangements, such as the bursting of a hose 



106 



or pipe, train broke in two, the trainmen 
reducing the air pressure in train pipe, or 
the engineer making a reduction of air with 
his brake valve. 

Q. Give an explanation of the automatic 
brake, its workings and essential parts? 

A. The essential parts of the automatic 
air brake is the engineer's equalizing dis- 
charge valve, auxiliary reservoir triple valve, 
small reservoir at the side of the engineer's 
equalizing discharge valve, the trainmen's 
application valve, the steam, air pump and 
governor, air guage, air pipe, cock, etc. 

Q. Of what use are the steam and air 
cylinders? 

A. They constitute the air pump, and are 
used for compressing air into the main 
reservoir. 

Q. Of what use is the main reservoir? 

A. It is used to retain and carry the air 
pressure pumped in with the air pump. 

Q. Of what use are the auxiliary drums? 

A. They are used to hold and furnish 
air for the brake cylinders when brakes are 
to be set. 

Q. Explain the triple valve and its 
location? 

A. The location of the triple valve is 



107 



between the brake cylinder, train pipe and 
auxiliary reservoir and. is used to let in or 
out or hold the air between the auxiliary 
reservoir and brake cylinder. 

Q. For what purpose is the small reser- 
voir that is connected to the equalizing dis- 
charge valve? 

A. It is to store air pressure to force the 
equalizing piston down when sufficient air 
has been released from brake pipe, to 
automatically close exhaust. 

Q. Where is the air first taken from when 
making service stops. 

A. From the main train pipe. 

Q. Where next? 

A. From the auxiliary reservoirs under 
each car, which passes through the triple 
valve into the brake cylinder. 

Q. When an engine is left standing alone 
and the pump running, why must the brake 
valve not be left on lap? 

A. Because the main reservoir pressure 
may run up to the same height as the steam 
in the boiler, and when the handle of 
engineer's valve is again placed in full 
release it will cause the train pipe and 
tender auxiliary reservoir to be charged 
with too high pressure, and may injure the 



108 



adjustment of pump governor as well as 
cause the tender wheels to slide on first 
application. 

Q. What position is proper? 

A. Running position. 

Q. Have brake cylinders what is called 
leakage grooves? 

A. Yes. 

Q- As a rule how much air is necessary 
to be discharged from train pipe to force 
the piston past the leakage grooves? 

A. About 5 lbs. 

Q. How long are the leakage grooves in 
the brake cylinder? 

A. Four inches. 

Q. Where are they located? 

A. In forward part of cylinder. 

Q. What are the leakage grooves pro- 
vided for? 

A. They are provided to release the 
brake cylinder of any air that might leak 
into it through the triple, also release the 
air left in brake cylinder after an application 
has been made. 

Q. Name the different positions of the 
equalizing discharge valve? 

A. There are five, namely: full release, 



109 



running position, on lap, service top, and 
emergency. 

Q. Why is equalizing discharge brake 
valve better than the old brake valve? 

A. Because it enables the engineer to 
apply the brakes more uniformly through- 
out the train, and with less shock, especially 
when quick action triple valves are used. 
It also prevents the brakes on forward end 
of train from being kicked off when engineer 
closes the valves after having made applica- 
tion. 

Q. Name the different kinds of engineers' 
brake valves, to the best of your knowledge. 

A. The D 8 and D 5. 

Q. What divides the main reservoir pres- 
sure from the train line pressure? 

A. The equalizing discharge valve. 

Q. On which side of the equalizing dis- 
charge valve is the main reservoir pressure? 

A. On top. 

Q. On which side of the rotary valve in 
the old-style engineer's valve is the main res- 
ervoir pressure? 

A. Below. 

Q. What air pressure operates the pump 
governor in the D. 5 and D. 8 valve. 

A. With D. 5 brake valve the main reser- 



110 



voir, and with all others the train pipe pres- 
sure. 

Q. Suppose the governor does not regu- 
late the train line pressure, how would you 
adjust it with the D. 8 valve, also the D. 5 ? 

A. With D. 8 valve the train line pres- 
sure is regulated by the pump governor, 
the spring in governor should be set so 70 
pounds of air pressure will raise the dia- 
phragm and air valve, so air will go down 
on governor piston and force the steam 
valve shut. With the D. 5 valve the train 
line pressure is regulated by the feed valve 
or train line governor on the side of brake 
valve. Set spring in feed valve so it will let 
the train line pressure move feed valve pis- 
ton down with 70 pounds pressure, this will 
let feed valve close so no more air can pass 
from main reservoir through running posi- 
tion port to train line, and pump governor 
should set at enough higher pressure to carry 
the desired excess pressure. 

Q. Why is governor regulated to only 
allow 70 lbs. of air pressure in train pipe ? 

A. Because 70 lbs. train pipe pressure 
produces the strongest, safe to use and pre- 
vents sliding of wheels. 



Ill 



Q. Explain the difference between the 
plain and quick action triple valves ? 

A. The plain triple valve has the cut-out 
cock in the body of the valve; the quick- 
action has it in the cross over pipe between 
the train pipe and triple. The plain triple 
does not have the additional parts to work 
the emergency action of the triple, conse- 
quently the brake is not liable to leak either 
on or off through the emergency valves or 
checks. The plain triple used on engine 
tender and coach equipment is so arranged 
that the piston works upright, and when 
the train is running the jar may work it 
down, and cover feed port so a very light 
reduction will set it; the piston in quick 
action triple moves horizontally, so its weight 
does not influence the action of the triple 
when running. 

Q. What might prevent governor from 
shutting off the steam and stopping pump 
when maximum pressure is obtained ? 

A. The engineer's brake valve being on 
lap. 

Q. If the piston in equalizing discharge 
brake valve becomes corroded and gummed 
what will be the result ? 

A. It would be necessary to make a large 



112 



reduction through the preliminary exhaust 
port before the brakes will apply at all and 
then the brakes will go on too hard and will 
have to be released by hand. 

Q. At what travel should a driver brake 
piston be adjusted? 

A. Not less than }i or more than yi its 
full stroke. 

Q. How is the brake-shoe slack of the 
cam driver brake taken up and what pre- 
cautions are necessary ? 

A. By means of the cam screws, and it is 
necessary to lengthen both alike, so when 
brake is applied the point of contact of cams 
will be in straight line with piston rod. 

Q. How is the brake-shoe slack of a six- 
wheel connected driver brake taken up ? 

A. By means of a turn buckle or screw 
in the connecting rods. 

Q. How would you take up slack of ten- 
der brake shoes ? 

A. By means of the dead truck lever. 

Q. Suppose they would not take it up 
enough; where then? 

A. It must be taken up in the under- 
neath connections and then adjusted by the 
dead lever. 



113 



Q. What distance should the brake cylin- 
der piston travel under tender brake ? 

A. Not less than 5 nor more than 6 ins.; 
adjustments must be made whenever the 
piston travel is found more than 7 inches. 

Q. How often should triple valves and 
cylinders of drivers and tender brakes be 
cleaned and oiled ? 

A. Every 6 months with mineral oil; oil 
cylinders every 3 months, and driver brake 
cylinders oftener if close to fire-box. 

Q. How often must the air brake and sig- 
nal apparatus on locomotives be examined ? 

A. After each trip. 

Q. What pressure of air must be carried 
on passenger engine and main train pipe ? 

A. 70 lbs. 

Q. On freight? 

A. 70 lbs. 

Q. What should the excess pressure be, 
also the signal pressure ? 

A. Excess pressure is 20 lbs., and signal 
pressure is 25 lbs. 

Q. Do you understand the necessity of 
keeping the feed valve and excess spring 
clean ? 

A. Yes, so it will maintain an excess 
pressure of about 20 lbs., in the main reser- 
8 



114 

voir and to insure release and recharge train 
quickly. 

Q. Why is excess pressure necessary ? 

A. It is to recharge auxiliary reservoirs 
quickly. 

Q. After the engine is backed up to train 
what should be done ? 

A. The air cock should be opened and 
the hose blown out, then connect to train 
hose, after that the engineer's brake valve 
should be placed in the release position, so 
train pipe, auxiliary reservoir and main reser- 
voir come in connection and equalize with 
air. 

Q. What is next to be done ? 

A. Test the air and brakes to see that all 
parts are in order before starting out on a 
run. 

Q. Suppose the pipe between brake cyl- 
inder and auxiliary reservoir was split or 
broken off, and prevented the operation of 
the triple valve, what should be done ? 

A. Move triple valve midway and open 
bleed cock under auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. Will that interfere with the rest of the 
train ? 

A. No. 

Q. About how much loss of air out 



. 



115 



train pipe is considered to firmly set all 
brakes ? 

A. Generally about 1 8 or 20 pounds. 

Q. Suppose after having recharged the 
train pipe from main reservoir and released 
all the brakes but the one under tank, where 
would you look for trouble ? 

A. Examine triple valve and see if it is 
up, if not, then move up and equalize air. 

Q. Give the different forces with differ- 
ent cylinder diameters and the brake piston 
traveling at eight inches in all ? 



u 

m 


S 

. 


in 

C 

Si 

p^ q 
05 t-.2S 


Total Force From Piston, 
in Pounds. 


a 

0) 


SB 

c 


fl'O 




u 

• CD 

>> 

O 


u 

■?« 




70 


"l 

9 
11 
13 
15 
17 
19 
21 
23 












63 
61 

59 
57 
55 
53 
51 


4 

19 
26 
40 
46 
50 
50 
50 
50 


600 
1900 
4000 
6150 
7100 
7700 


300 
1500 
2050 
3150 
3600 
4000 


200 
950 
1300 
2000 
2300 
2500 


100 

500 

700 

1100 

1500 

1400 


49 










47 





















Q. Is there a limit to the braking power 
of the automatic brake ? 
A. Yes. 



116 



Q. What governs it ? 

A. The triple valves, graduating valve. 

Q. Can you tell by the gauge when this 
limit is reached ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. What pressure is in cylinder when 70 
lbs. pressure is in auxiliaries ? 

A. 50 lbs. 

Q. What are the functions of the triple 
valve ? 

A. It is to automatically open and close 
the auxiliary reservoir valve when pressure 
is increased and decreased in main brake 
pipe. 

Q. Why is it called a triple valve ? 

A. Because it connects and operates three 
points, namely: main train pipe, auxiliary 
reservoir and brake cylinder. 

Q. Where is the compressed air kept 
ready for use ? 

A. In the main reservoir about engine. 

Q. Where does the compressed air come 
from that enters the brake cylinder when 
the automatic brakes are applied ? 

A. It comes from the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. How does it get into the auxiliary 
reservoir ? 



117 



A. From the main train pipe through the 
triple valve. 

Q. About how many seconds does it take 
for the auxiliaries to recharge with air ? 

A. About two seconds. 

Q. When two or more engines are coupled 
together, which one should do the braking ? 

A. The head engine. 

Q. How would you proceed to give the 
forward engineer complete control of the 
train ? 

A. Engineer on second engine must close 
stop cock under his brake valve leading to 
train pipe, place brake valve in ' 'running* ' 
position so as to give leading engineer full 
control of the train. Second engineer must 
keep maximum pressure up in main reser- 
voir to use in case head engine gives out. 

Q. What should the leading engineer do ? 

A. Make a terminal test of train, etc. 

Q. What is the pressure retaining valve, 
and what is its use ? 

A. The pressure retaining valve is at the 
exhaust of triple valve. It is used to pre- 
vent the brake release on heavy grades and 
hold the brakes partially applied so as to 
allow more time to recharge the auxiliary 
reservoirs. 



118 



Q. How much pressure does the pressure 
retaining valve keep in brake cylinder ? 

A. It retains 15 lbs. pressure in brake 
cylinder when triple valve is in release. 

Q. In descending a grade how can you 
best keep a train under control ? 

A. Apply brakes and reduce speed before 
too much speed is attained; keep a reduction 
of 8 pounds of air on train pipe, then re- 
charge the auxiliary reservoir so as to 
have air when needed. 

Q. Suppose the air pump should happen 
to play out descending a long steep grade, 
with from 30 to 50 cars of air, how could you 
keep up the pressure in main reservoir, and 
the air pump stopped entirely ? 

A. By what is known as Sweeney* s 
emergency brake. 

Q. Explain what is meant by Sweeney's 
emergency brake ? 

A. On the steam chest of cylinders is a 
small valve with a rod running from its 
handle back under the running board to cab. 
This merely connects the steam chest, by 
means of a pipe, to the main air drum; in 
descending a hill and no steam being used, 
simply open the valves to the Sweeney 
auxiliary pipe and reverse the engine both 



119 



pistons of the engine pumps air into the 
main reservoir and very fast. In this way 
an engineer can keep his full drum pressure 
up easily by letting the cylinders help him 
out occasionally. 

Q. Would you reverse an engine with 
driver brakes set ? 

A. No. 

Q. Why not? 

A. Because it would block the drivers 
and cause flat wheels. 

Q. Why are three lines of hose coupled 
between the engine and tender on some of 
our engines ? 

A. One for main train pipe, one for air 
signal and the third for steam to heat train, 
etc. 

Q. Why only two on some engines? 

A. One for main train pipe and one for 
air signal. 

Q. Why only one on some engines that 
have both driver and tender brake? 

A. The one hose covers all on main train 
air pipe. 

Q. In case the lines of hose are coupled 
up wrong between engine and tender, can 
the brakes be worked ? 

A. No. 



120 



Q. How will you detect the ones that are 
coupled up wrong? 

A. First, try to release the brakes; if they 
will not release they are wrong ; couple 
properly, then test air signal; the last is 
bound to be O. K. 

Q. What must be done with the hose 
coupling back of last car and at pilot? 

A. They should be hung in the dummy 
coupling. 

Q. State the importance of this. 

A. It is done to keep out dirt, also to 
prevent the hose from being torn or pulled 
off, etc. 

Q. When engineer's brake valve is on lap 
position and the main reservoir or train line 
pressure increases, where would you locate 
the trouble ? 

A. Locate the trouble at the rotary valve, 
being cut or leaky. 

Q. How often should the engineer's brake 
valve be cleaned, oiled and looked after? 

A. About every 60 days. 

Q. If there was a continuous leak from 
exhaust of triple valve, what would be the 
trouble ? 

A. Dust or dirt getting in on the road. 

Q, Could you remedy it on the road ? 



121 



A. Most generally, by suddenly opening 
and closing triple valve the air will clean it. 

Q. When does the triple valve move ? 

A. When the engineer moves the engin- 
eer's valve to the full left the train pipe is 
put in connection with the main reservoir 
valve and lets the air from the main reservoir 
into the brake pipe, the triple valve moves 
up, equalizes the pressure between the aux- 
iliary reservoir brake pipe and main reser- 
voir ; this opens the brake cylinder valve 
and releases the brake. 

Q. What would happen if the engineer 
moved the engineer's valve handle between 
the two laps, closing the main reservoir 
valve and letting the air out of the brake 
pipe? 

A. The triple valve would move down 
and connect the auxiliary reservoir to the 
brake cylinder and apply the brakes. 

Q. State the object of having two needles 
on air gauge, also the two colors, red and 
black ? 

A. The red needle is to show the main 
reservoir pressure and excess of 20 lbs. = 90 
lbs., the black one is to show the amount of 
air in train pipe, 20 lbs. 



122 



Q. What do you consider an ideal man- 
ner of breaking ? 

A. Move engineer's brake handle to 
service stop position until the train pipe 
needle shows a loss of about 8 lbs.; then 
move handle in lap, and gradually bring the 
reduction down to 20 lbs. and hold there 
until about to stop, then release just before 
stopping; on a heavy grade keep brakes 
on. 

Q. In making service stop, why release 
the brakes before coming to full stop ? 

A. To prevent sudden shock to passen- 
gers and train. 

Q. Is it dangerous to apply and release 
brakes more than once in making stops? 

A. Yes. Because every time brakes are 
released the air in brake cylinders is wasted, 
and if necessary to suddenly apply again for 
some unforseen cause, before sufficient time 
has elapsed to re-charge auxiliaries, the 
application will be w T eak. 

Q. In making a service or regular stop 
why must the brake valve handle not be 
moved past the position for service appli- 
cation ? 

A. Because in doing so the air would all 
be lost. 



123 



Q. Why is it dangerous to apply and 
release the brake repeatedly in making a 
service stop? 

A. Because in so doing the air would be 
lost. 

Q. In releasing brake how long should 
the handle be left in the same position ? 

A. Until the train pipe needle shows the 
same pressure as main reservoir, then move 
handle in running position against stop. 

Q. What is meant by a terminal test ? 

A. It means to try the air and see that all 
is O. K. before going on a run. 

Q. Wh5>- is it absolutely necessary ? 

A. Because all the auxiliary reservoirs 
must be equalized in pressure with main 
reservoir, that all couplings are correct, and 
that the brakes work satisfactorily. 

Q. At what other times should tests of 
the same nature be made? 

A. When a car is picked up on the road 
or one in the middle of the train is thrown 
out, or any switching, etc., is done. 

Q. In picking up uncharged cars what 
should be done ? 

A. After coupling to car move the handle 
of brake valve in release, so to fill auxiliary 



124 

reservoir when cocks are opened between 
the cars. 

Q. Why are brakes released before un- 
coupling cars? 

Q. If train was broken in two, how would 
you proceed to get under way again after 
coupling up, and what would you do? 

A. Place brake handle on lap and leave 
it there until train has stopped and the brake 
apparatus has been examined and a release 
signal is given, after coupling up again await 
signal to test brakes after having charged 
auxiliary reservoirs. 

Q. How would you get the train ready? 

A. Place handle of brake valve in full 
release, then in running position, then await 
test signal, then test brakes, etc. 

Q. Would it be necessary in this case to 
make what is called a terminal test? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Why? 

A. To be sure everything about the 
braking power is O. K. 

Q. Suppose trainmen cut out a car, what 
should be done? 

A. The handle of engineer's brake valve 
should be moved into full release to equalize 
the auxiliaries and train pipe. 






125 



SPEEDING AND SIGNALS. 

Q. Give as near as practicable the dis- 
tances of telegraph poles, also how many to 
the mile. 

A. The telegraph poles are supposed to 
be 165 feet apart, and 32 poles to the mile. 

Q. Suppose you were running 45 miles 
per hour how many minutes and seconds 
would you allow to each mile? 

A. One minute and 21 seconds. 



Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 

A 



To 25 miles? 

Two minutes and 24 seconds 

To 10 miles ? 

Six minutes. 

To 58 miles ? 

One minute and 2 seconds. 

To 30 miles ? 

Two minutes. 

To 35 miles ? 

One minute and 42 seconds. 

To 15 miles? 

Four minutes. 

To 55 miles? 

One minute and 6 seconds. 

To 40 miles ? 

One minute and 30 seconds. 

To 20 miles ? 

Three minutes. 



126 



Q. To 50 miles ? 

A. One minute and 12 seconds. 

Q. To 60 miles ? 

A. One minute. 

Q. How would you find the time it would 
take to travel a certain distance, making a 
certain speed per hour ? 

A. Multiphy the distance by 60 and di- 
vide by rate of speed. 

Q. Give an example: A train running 
from station to station, say distance is 8^ 
miles, and the rate of speed is 28 miles per 
hour, how long will it take to make the 8)4 
miles ? 

A. %y 2 miles x 60 = 510 -h 28 miles =18^ 
minutes. 

Q. Can you give the distance and the time 
to find the rate of speed ? 

A. Yes. Multiply the distance by 60 and 
divide by the time ? 

Q. If it takes a train 18^3 minutes to run 
S% miles at what rate of speed does the 
train run ? 

A. S}4 miles x 60 minutes = 5 10 +- 18^ = 
28 miles per hour. 

Can you give the time and the rate of 
speed to find the distance ? 



127 



A. Yes. Multiply the time by the rate 
of speed and divide by 60. 

Q. If the train is running at the rate of 28 
miles per hour, what is the distance passed 
over in IS, 1 3 minutes, 

A. 18^3 x 28 = 510 -h 6o = S}4 miles, the 
number of miles passed over in 18^3 minutes 
at a speed of 28 miles per hour. 

To those who prefer to use formula, I give 
the following: 

Let T=Time in minutes. 

R=Rate of speed, in miles, per hour. 
D=Distance in miles. 
6o=Constant. 

I. Given, R and D, to find T. 
Solution: f^D^T. 

II. Given, D and T, to find R. 
Solution: 60 - JL- = R. 



III. Given, T and R, to find D. 

Solution. T--f- = D. 

Q. How do you understand the 

SIGNALS IN GENERAL. 

BEIX-CORD OR ENGINEER'S AIR WHISTLE. 

One tap when standing still — Go ahead. 

Two taps when running — Stop. 

Two taps when standing— Call flagman. 



128 



Three taps when standing — Back up. 
Three taps when running — Stop next sta- 
tion. 

Four taps when running — Reduce speed. 

ENGINE WHISTLES. 

One long whistle, stations, draw bridges, 
junctions and R. R. crossings. 

One short whistle — Stop, on brakes. 

Two medium whistles — Start, off brakes. 

Two short whistles — Answer to all signals 
except when broke in two. 

Three long whistles — Train parted. 

Three short whistles when standing — Back 
up. 

Three short whistles when running — Call 
attention to signals carried. 

Four long whistles — Calls in flagman. 

Four short whistles — Switch or signals. 

Two long and two short whistles — Wagon- 
road crossing. 

Five short whistles — Send out flagman. 

Continuation of short whistles — Stock on 
track. 

LAMP AND HAND SIGNALS. 
Raise hand or lamp up and down — Go 
ahead. 

Swing hand or lamp across track — Stop. 



129 

Swing hand or lamp in circle to .eft — 
Back up. 

Swing hand or lamp at full arm's length 
until engineer answers by three long whistles, 
Broke in two. 

SIGNALS CARRIED BY TRAINS. 

Two green flags or lamps in front of 
engine — Another section following with 
same rights. 

Two white flags or lights in front of engine 
— Special or wild train. 

The lights on freight caboose are one 
cupola light, green front and red back, two 
lamps, one each side of car, each having 
front and sides green and back red. 

Day signals are green flags. 

The lights for passenger trains are the 
same except in place of a cupola light a 
large red bull's-eye sits on rear platform of 
last car. 

STATION OR FIXED SIGNALS. 

Red flag or light — Danger, stop. 
Green flag or light — Caution, slow. 
White flag or light — Safe, clear track. 
White flag or light at station — Stop for 
passengers. 



130 

Red flag or light at station — Stop for train 
orders. 

TORPEDO SIGNALS. 

One torpedo — Stop, 

Two torpedoes — Slow speed, careful, look 
out for signals. 

Place one torpedo about ten telegraph 
poles from train or 1,600 feet, then go still 
further 1,600 feet and place two about 20 
feet apart, leave the two torpedoes and go 
back to the single one, stay in that neigh- 
borhood until engineer blows four long 
whistles, then remove torpedo and run 
toward train; if passenger train is due wait, 
signal and ride in. Never place torpedoes 
near depot or wagon-road crossing. 

Q. Name the different makes of switches. 

A. The point or split switch, double split 
and old stub switches. 

Q. What is a Y track and its use? 

A. AY track is two tracks from two dif- 
ferent directions off main track, running to« 
gether, forming a Y. It is used to turn 
engines, trains, etc. 

Q. Explain the Block system. 

A. It is a system of working railway 
traffic, according to which the line is divided 



131 



into sections of a mile or more, with a signal 
and telegraphic connection at end of each 
section. The principle of system being that 
no train is allowed to leave any o.ie section 
until the next succeeding section is entirely 
clear, so that between two successive trains 
there is preserved definite intervals of fime 
and space. 

Q. What is meant by a semaphore? 

A. A semaphore is a post that bears 
target or lantern signals. 

Q. Explain semaphoric. 

A. Semaphoric means targets operated 
by electricity. 

Q. What is a railroad gauntlet? 

A. A railroad gauntlet is the running to- 
gether of parallel tracks of a double road 
passing in the space of one, going through 
a single tunnel or bridge without breaking 
the continuity of either rail. 

Q. Suppose the target stood out at right 
angles with post and not in your favor, what 
would prevent you from going right along? 

A. If by accident such a thing would 
happen, the engine would run off the end of 
rails, and that would qualify me for about 
30 days' uncalled for vacation. 



132 

MIXED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

Q. What does a ton of soft coal contain? 

A. It contains 2,000 cubic feet of gas, 
1,500 pounds of coke, 20 gallons of am- 
monia water and 14 pounds coal tar. 

Q. How would you find the area of any 
cylinder? 

A. Multiply the diameter by diameter 
and answer by .7854. 

Q. How many area square inches has a 
cylinder 16-inch diameter? 

A. It has 201.06 square inches. 

Q. State the different standard decimals 
used daily, namely, to find the circumference 
of any diameter's circle; also to find the 
cubic inch contents of a ball? 

A. Standard number for circumference is 
3.1416, and the standard number for cubic 
inches in a sphere use .5236. 

Q. How do you understand a cubic? 
Explain by example, say a ball is 3% inches 
diameter. 

A. A ball 3^ inches diameter reads 

375x375=14.0625x375 = 52734375 x. 5236 

=27.61 17187500=27^0 cubic inches in ball 
3%-inch diameter. 

Q, Does it take more air to burn coke 
than coal? 






133 

A. Yes, it takes one-tnird more air for 
coke than coal. 

Q. How many cubic feet of air does it 
take to consume one pound of coke? 

A. It takes 330^. Example: 248 for 
coal; Yi of 248= 82^, added to 248= 330^. 

Q. How are fractional parts of whole 
numbers made to read as whole numbers? 

A. The fractional part of a whole num- 
ber is made to read as a whole number by 
dividing the fractional part into 100 until 
nothing remains; answer will be fractional 
part in decimals, Example: % of 100, 

4-hioo=.25X3=75- 

Q. How are they found, take T % of $1, 

for instance? 

A. One=$i.oo. Divide 16 into 100 until 
nothing remains. 16-^ 100=6.25 X 3=18.75, 
or i8#c= fV of $1.00. 

Q. How do you understand the horse 
power of a boiler? 

A. The evaporation of 1 cubic foot of 
water per hour. 

Q. How do you understand the horse 
power of a steam engine? 

A. 33,000 lbs. raised 1 foot high in I 
minute. 

Q. Give an explanation of a horse power? 



134 



A. First compare the rule with the actual 
power of a horse, and then apply it to the 
steam engine. The usual traveling gate of 
a horse, hitched to a light sulky is about 
5 miles an hour, or 440 feet per minute. If 
a spring scale be attached to the singletree 
we may note the amount of power the horse 
is exerting. Assuming this to be 75 lbs. 
and the product of the speed per minute 
440, multiply speed by lbs. or power exerted 
and the answer is 33,000 foot lbs., and rep- 
resents a horse power. 

Q. How is this applied to an engine? 

A. In applying this to an engine, we first 
find the area of the cylinder, mutiply area 
by boiler pressure, and that answer by pis- 
ton speed in feet per minute, and divide by 
33,000. Answer will be nominal H. P. 

Q. What deduction for cut off? 

A. Deduct }£. 

Q. How much for short cut-off? 

A. Deduct y 2 . 

Q. Why is this reduction made? 

A. It is made for variation of pressure, 
friction, condensation, etc. 

Q. Are you acquainted with any short 
rule by which a cylinder H. P. can be rated? 

A. For small cylinders, from 2 to 12 inch 



135 

bore ; multiply diameter by itself and divide 
by 3. Answer is H. P. For larger cylinders 
from 16 to 20 ; divide by 4. Answer is H. P. 

Q. Explain why engines with large cylin- 
ders as a rule have 3, 4 and 5 drivers on one 
side, also all of them connected? 

A. The more drivers the more traction 
on the rail and the more load can be started. 
The reason for connecting all is more trac- 
tion, and the heavy strain on the main pin 
divided up between other pins through the 
parallel rods. 

Q. Is the piston-head in the middle of 
the cylinder's length when the crank pin is 
at either half stroke? 

A. No. 

Q. What is the cause of this? 

A. It is caused by the main rod's length. 

Q. Which travels the greater distance in 
one revolution, the cross head or the crank 
pin? 

A. The crank pin, 

Q. How much further does the crank pin 
travel than the crosshead in one-half revo- 
lution, also in one revolution? 

A. The crank pin travels one-sixth fur- 
ther in a half revolution and one-third in 
one revolution. 



136 

Q. Does the crosshead stop in the guides 
at each dead point? 

A. Yes. 

Q. What is the crank pin doing while the 
crosshead is at dead point? 

A. It is traveling one-sixth of the circum- 
ference. 

Q. How many sixths are there in the 
travel of the crank pin? 

A. There are six, one at each dead center 
divided into twelfths, and two for each full 
stroke of crosshead=six. 

Q. What is the object in beveling engine 
and car wheels? 

A. They are beveled to make up the dif- 
ference as much as possible between the 
short and long rail in turning a curve, also 
to keep the train central between the rails. 

Q. How does one know where to look 
for tensile strength, and what is tensile 
strength? 

A. Generally the sheets are stamped, 
giving the exact T. S., and the meaning of 
the term is the amount of the hydraulic 
strain the sheet will test to per square inch 
in pulling asunder. 

Q. Is it rulable to use full T. S. in work- 
ing a boiler? 

A. No; about one-sixth of it 



137 

RULES AND RECIPES. 

To compute the speed of shafts, size of pul- 
leys* etc. Example : To find the size of a 
driven pulley to give a shaft 160 revolutions 
driven by a 32-inch driver running 96 revolu- 
tions; simply multiply the driver, 32, by the 
speed it runs and divide by speed wanted. 
96x32 = 3072 -r- 160 == 19-inch pulley. 

TO TEST QUALITY OF IRON. 

A soft, tough iron is known by fracture giv- 
ing long silky fibres of a grayish hue, and the 
fibres covering and twisting together before 
breaking. Badly refined iron is known by its 
short blackish fibre. Brittle iron is indicated 
by coarse grain with brilliant crystalized 
break. This iron works easy, and welds easily 
when heated. 

TO TEST STEEL. 

Good tool steel will fall to pieces at a white 
heat; at a bright red it will crumble under the 
hammer; at middle heat it may be drawn to a 
needle point. 

To test hardening qualities : Draw under a 
low heat to a gradually tapered square point 
and plunge into cold water; if broken point 
will scratch glass the quality is good. 



138 



Recipe to Polish Boiler-Heads, Fire- 
Boxes, Smoke-Arches, Stacks, Etc. — Take 
an old sponge and common soap and make 
a suds; pour on some boiled oil and rub 
over boiler-heads, etc. This will leave a 
satin gloss polish instantly; do while warm. 

Receipt to Cool Hot Pins, Journals, Etc. — 
Use small quantity of ammonia; work it 
through the oil cup; it will surprise you. 
Pulverized sulphur and plumbago mixed 
with machine oil is very good. 

Calendar Calculations. — Rule to find on 
which day of the week any date will fall, 
in the future or past. Example: Set down 
the last two figures of the year, say 95. The 
% of 95=23 (dropping the fractions), then 
add the date desired, say Feb. 3; then add 
the standard number following the month 
of February, which is 6; add all together 
and divide by 7, which are the seven days of 
the week; the answer remaining is 1; there- 
fore Feb. 3, 1895, falls on the 1st day, 
Sunday. 

95 year. 
23 % year. 

3 days. 

6 Month No. 

7)127(18 
126 

1 Sunday. 

Months with standard numbers: Jan. 3, Feb. 
6, March 6, April 2, May 4, June o, July 2, 
Aug. 5, Sept. i, Oct. 3, Nov. 6, Dec. 1. 



1 remaining represents Sunday. 



2 


" Monday. 


3 


' Tuesday. 


4 


1 Wedn'day 


5 


• Thursday. 


6 


' Friday. 


7 or " 


' Saturday. 



139 

To test tenacity : Take a hardened piece 
and drive it into cast iron with hardened ham- 
mer; if poor it will crumble. Soft steel of 
good quality gives a curved line break and 
gray texture. Tool steel should be a dull silver 
color, equal and entirely free from sparkling 
qualities. Aquafortis, applied to the surface 
of steel, produces a black spot; and on iron 
the surface remains clean. The slightest vein 
of iron or steel can be detected by this method. 

To remove dust from steel, brush the rusted 
steel with a paste composed of y% oz. cyanide 
of potassium, y 2 oz. castile soap, one oz. 
whiting and enough water to make a paste; 
then wash the steel in a solution of y& oz. 
cyudide of potassium in two ozs. of water. 

TO CLEAN BRASS. 

Take and mix one part common nitric acid, 
y 2 part sulphuric acid, in a stove, having also 
a pail of fresh water and a box of sawdust. 
Dip articles into acid, and then soak in water, 
and finally rub them in sawdust, and the brass 
will be bright. 

If the brass is greasy, first dip into a strong 
solution of potash and soda in water; then 
rinse, so the grease may be removed, leaving 
the acid free to act upon the brass. 



140 

To keep machinery from rusting : Take 
one oz. of camphor and dissolve it in one 
pound of melted lard; take off the scum, and 
mix in as much fine black as will give it iron 
color. Clean the machinery and smear it 
with the mixture. After 24 hours, rub clean 
with a soft linen cloth. It will keep clean for • 
months under ordinary circumstances. 

BOILER COVERING. 

Take 16 pounds of rye flour, 32 pounds flax 
seed meal and 15 gallons of water, boil for one 
hour; then add three pails of dry clay, three 
pails of sifted ashes and seven pounds of hair. 
The above proportions will make about one 
barrel. For outside finishing, use half the 
amount of hair. 

CEMENT. 

Cement to fasten iron to stone; when made, 
use at once. Take ten parts of fine iron filings; 
thirty parts of plaster of paris and y 2 part of 
salammoniac, mix with weak vinegar to a fluid 
paste, and apply at once as it sets very quickly. 

To avoid tearing manhole gaskets, put a 
little white lead on the surface of the gasket, 
which rests on the manhole plate, and chalk 
the outer surface of the gasket heavily, as 



141 



also the part of the manhole frame with which 
it comes in contact. 

STEAM HEATING. 

Allow one square foot of heating surface in 
a boiler for every 200 feet of space in a church; 
in a dwelling allow one square foot to every 50 
cubic feet. The radiators should have one 
square foot of superficial area to every six 
square feet of glass in windows, and one square 
foot for every 80 feet to be heated. 

One horse power in a boiler is generally 
sufficient for 40,000 cubic feet of space for a 
temperature of 70 degrees Fahr. 

CAPACITY OF TANKS. 

To ascertain the capacity of a tank, multiply 
the square of the diameter by 5.873 and the re- 
sult will give gallons for one foot in depth. 

Example : Tank 10 feet in diameter 
10x10 = 100x5.873 = 587 gallons. To find ca- 
pacity of square tank in gallons multiply 
length by breadth, then by height in inches= 
cubic contents and divide by 231 (number of 
cubic inches in a standard gallon). 

Safe working pressure of a boiler : Multiply 
twice the thickness of the shell by the tensile 
strength (found stamped on boiler sheet) and 
divide by the diameter of the shell in inches. 



142 

Rule to determine weight on safety valve 
lever : Multiply area of valve by pressure of 
steam per square inch wanted to blow off at ; 
from this answer subtract the weight of lever, 
valve, stem and pin; then multiply the remain- 
der by the distance from the valve to the ful- 
crum; divide by the distance from fulcrum to 
where weight is to be placed; the answer will 
be the required weight. 

TO CUT A GLASS GAUGE TUBE. 

If tube is too long, take a three-cornered file 
and wet it; hold the tube in one hand with the 
thumb and fore-finger at the place where you 
wish to cut it; saw it quickly and lightly two 
or three times with the edge of the file. Now 
take the tube in both hands, both thumbs being 
at the opposite side to the mark and about one 
inch apart, then try to bend the glass, using 
your thamb as fulcrum. It will break at the 
mark every time. 

LIME WATER. 

To make a lime water for scalds and burns : 
Slack a small piece of lime; as soon as the 
water is clear, mix it with linseed oil, enough 
to make a cream-like substance. This will ex- 
clude the air from the burnt parts and allay in- 
flammation almost instantly. 



143 
CALCULATING INTEREST, 

SHORT RULES. 

If at six per cent, multiply the dollars by the 
number of days and divide by six, and cut off 
one figure on the right. Example : what is the 
interest on $73.25 from April 12th to July 15th, 
which is 94 days? 73.25 X 94=6885-^6=11.15. 
If at seven per cent, after following above rule, 
add 1-6 thus, 1.15 + 19 = $1.34. If at five per 
cent, after following the rule, deduct 1-6 thus, 
1.15-19=96 cents. 

BRICK WORK 

FOR BOILERS AND ENGINE BEDS. 

The size of a common brick is 2.66 X 3.85 X 
7.70 ; the size of a fire brick is 2.66 X 4± X 8$. 

Weight of brick work is 112 pounds per 
cubic foot ; weight of stone work is from 116 to 
144 pounds per cubic foot, 21 bricks equal one 
cubic foot, 4^ bricks laid flat equal one superfi- 
cial foot. In setting boilers use only the best 
hard brick for walls, and the best fire brick for 
lining furnace surfaces. If the boiler has side 
lugs to bear its weight, the forward lugs should 
rest directly on lug plates placed on the walls, 
and the rear lugs on expansion rollers placed 
crosswise on the wall plates under the centre of 
lugs. Keep the brick work away from the lugs 



144 

over expansion rollers, you will not be bothered 
with cracked walls. 

The bridge walls should be faced and capped 
with fire brick, and built up within six inches 
of the shell, sloped toward the back, circular 
with the boiler. The flue at back of boiler 
should be formed by an arch spring from side- 
walls, or by wrought iron plates covered with 
two thicknesses of brick, these plates to be sup- 
ported by T iron cross-beams set flush on under 
side and below the manhole of boiler or below 
the water line. 

To know the number of bricks it will take to 
set a boiler in 12 inch walls: multiply length of 
wall by height in feet, and multiply by 21 (the 
number of bricks in a cubic foot.) Example: 
wall 15 feet long, 8 feet high, opposite wall the 
same, rear wall 5x8, bridge wall 5 feet long, 2 
feet wide, average 3 feet high ; 15 X 8 = 120 two 
walls = 240 5X8=40 5x2 = 10x3 = 30 240 
+ 40+30=310 cubic feet; which multiplied by 
21 = 6510 bricks. This will take 6 \ barrels of 
lime and 6J barrels of sand as mortar. Allow- 
ance is to be made for the covering of top of 
boiler paving ashpit and for fire brick in build- 
ing front connection Use only fire clay in fur- 
nace. Lime mortar mixed with very little ce- 
ment is good for pits. Lime mortar stands heat 
better than cement. 



145 

ENGINE FOUNDATION. 

The foundation of an engine should be built 
one foot lower than the fly wheel and one width 
of a brick wider all around the bed plate of en- 
gine and 1-4 inches wider at the base all around. 
Out bearing pillow block should be built the 
same in proportion and run a stay or brace from 
engine bed to pillow block brick work. 

To ascertain the number of bricks required, 
find the average width and length, then multi- 
ply length by width by full height, and then by 
21, which gives number of bricks. Use hard 
burnt brick or bats for filling, or fill with rubble 
or concrete made of three barrels of stone rub- 
bish, two barrels of sand, and one barrel of ce- 
ment, mix and wet down. The foundation 
should be laid in cement and sand mixed, one 
part sand and two parts cement. To every 1000 
bricks use two barrels cement and one barrel of 
sand. 

To ascertain the expansion of wrought iron 
pipes. Multiply the length of pipe in inches 
by the number of degrees to which it is heated, 
and divide by ly^o", which gives the expansion 
in inches. Cast iron pipe expands Ij-^q of its 
length for each degree Fahr. it is subjected to 
under ordinary circumstances. Wrought iron 
pipe ly^o. A two inch pipe when heated to 

10 



146 

338 degrees Fahr. or 100 pounds pressure, 
exerts an expansion force of twenty five tons. 
The melting, boiling, and freezing points of 
various substances, and metals in alphabetic 
form. 

MELTING. 

Antimony melts at 951 Beg. 

Bismuth melts at..... 476 

Brass melts at. ....1900 

Cast Iron melts at . 3479 

Copper melts at „ 2548 

Glass melts at 2377 

Gold melts at 2590 

Ice melts at 32 

Lead melts at 594 

Platinum melts at 3080 

Silver melts at 1250 

Steel melts at 2500 

Tin melts at 421 

Zinc melts at 740 

BOILING. 

Ether boils at 100. Deg. 

Fresh water boils at 212. 

Linseed Oil boils at . 340. 

Mercury boils at 662. 

Naptha boils at 186. 

Oil of turpentine boils at 304. 

Sea water boils at 213. £ 

Sweet Oil boils at 412. 

FREEZING. 

Ether freezes at 47. Belew Zero. 

Mercury freezes at 40. " " 

Sea Water freezes at 28. •< " 

SweetWater freezes at 32. Above " 

Wine freezes at 20. " 

Alcohol has no record of ever having been frozen. 
The claim is that alcohol has been exposed to one 
hundred and twenty degrees below zero without 
freezing. 



147 

HOW SOUND TKAVELS. 

In dry air at 82 degrees 1141 feet per second, 
or about 775 miles per hour; in water, 4,900 
feet per second ; in iron, 17,500 feet; in copper, 
10,378 feet; and in wood from 12,000 to 16,000 
feet per second. In w T ater a bell heard at 45,- 
000 feet could be heard in the air out of the 
water but 656 feet. In a balloon the barking of 
a dog on the earth can be heard at an elevation 
of 22,000 feet or four miles. 

Divers on the wreck of the Huzzar frigate, one 
hundred feet under water at Hell gate, near 
Xew York, heard the paddle wheels of distant 
steamers hours before they hove in sight. The 
report of a rifle on a still day may be heard at 
5,300 yards ; a military band at 5,200 yards. 
The fire of the English on landing in Egypt was 
distinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson said 
he heard, during a calm day, every word of a 
sermon at a distance of two miles, 

The first steamboat plied the Hudson in 1807. 

The first saw-maker's anvil was brought to America 

in 1819. 
The first use of a locomotive in this country was in 

1820. 
The first use of a stationary engine was in 1625. 
The first use of kerosene for lighting purposes was 

in 1826. 



148 

The first horse railroad was built in 1826 and '27. 
The lirst lucifer match was made in 1829. 
The first iron steamship was built in 1830. 
The first air pump was used in 1650. 
The first newspaper advertisment appeared in 1652. 
The first copper cent was coined in New Haven in 
1687. 

How to destroy the effects of acid on clothes : 
dampen as soon as possible with spirits of am- 
monia and the effect will be destroyed immedi- 
ately. 

A good cement to stop holes in castings is 
eight parts of sifted cast iron turnings, two 
parts of powdered salammoniac and one part 
sulpher made into thick paste with water and 
mixed fresh for use is very fine. 

To make a fine oil for watches or fine machin- 
ery. Put thin strips of lead in a large mouth 
bottle and pour over pure olive oil, and leave it 
stand in the sun about three weeks, then pour 
off the clear oil, and you will have an oil which 
which will neither corrode or gum. 

A good varnish for boiler fronts, smoke stacks 
and steam pipes is good asphaltum, dissolved in 
oil of turpentine. 

Cement for joints for steam exhaust or waste 
pipes that will set under water : Paris white 
ground, four pounds; litharge ground, ten 
pounds, yellow ochre, fine, half pound; hemp, 



149 

one-half oz., cut short and mix all together with 
linseed oil to a stiff putty. 

TEMPERING. 

Tempering of fine springs, after bringing to 
the proper shape desired : heat slowly to a cher- 
ry red and plunge in black oil ; after the spring 
is cool hold it over the fire and burn the oil off; 
dip the spring in the oil three times in this man- 
neer and burn off each time; after the last burn- 
ing plunge into water and cool preparatory to 
polishing. 

To temper engraver's diamond point tools, 
heat to nearly white heat and stick the tool into 
sealing wax until cool, then dip point into oil of 
turpentine. 

To temper common flat, cape or side chisels 
and flat drills. Shape them ready for the grind- 
stone, then heat the points about two or three 
inches back to cherry red and plunge point into 
luke warm water, leaving the black part warm to 
drive out the temper to the point, polish point 
with sand and watch results. When proper 
temper is attained, plunge whole tool into cold 
water. 

Colors : For chipping or drilling cast iron the 
tools should be dark straw turning to blue. Color 
for steel and iron should be pretty near blue, 
and softer than for cast iron. 



150 

To join a band saw when broken : Bevel each 
end the length of two blades, fasten saw in braz- 
ing clamp, wet the joint with solder water made 
of borax rubbed on slate with water, place piece 
of silver solder in joint full size and squeeze 
together with red hot to^gs. When solder fuses 
throw water on tongs and cool while holding the 
joint. Hammer saw if necessary and draw file 
down to proper thickness. 

To renew worn files : thorougly cleanse them 
from grease or oil with alkali, then dip them in 
a solution made with one part nitric acid, three 
parts sulphuric acid, seven parts water by 
weight ; time, five seconds to five minutes, ac- 
cording to fineness of cut. Wash in hot water, 
dip in lime water, dry and oil them. 

To inscribe metal : cover the part with melted 
beeswax; when cold, write what you desire 
plainly in the wax clean to the metal with scri- 
ber, then apply a mixture of \ oz. nitric acid, 
1 oz. muriatic acid, with a feather, carefully fill 
each letter ; let it remain from one to ten min- 
utes according to appearance desired, then 
throw on water to stop the process of cutting 
heat wax to remove it, and you have your name. 

To draw an ellipse, such as man-holes and 
hand-holes. This can be done by means of a 
string, pencil and two pins. First lay two lines 



151 



each crossing the other in the middle; these 
lines to represent the length and breadth of the 
figure mark the ends of lines A, B, C, D, and 
then divide the major axis A, B into eight parts, 




and fix two pins at the divisions, one and seven, 
as per cut, now fasten one end of a string to 7, 
and stick a temporary pin at D, pass the string 
around it and make the string fast to the pin at 
1, then remove the temporary pin, put the point 
of a pencil, as x, inside the loop and describe ^ 
the ellipse, then shift the position of the string 
to the other side of the line A, B, and describe 
the other Half. 

To make a square or erect a perpendicular 
liue from any point in a straight line. Let the 
point C on the straight line A, B, be the one at 
which it is required to erect a perpendicular. 



152 

Now, to dp this, set one leg of a pair of dividers 
at C, and then open them to any convenient dis- 






G 






tance, say four or twenty inches, C, a, b, put 
point of dividers at small a, and cross about 
where the perpendicular should stand, then 
strike another from where b is, and where the 
two arcs cross join with C, and the perpendicu- 
lar line will be the square with parallel line 
(45 degrees.) 



153 



Rule to find Circumferences: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416. 
To find the diameter: Divide the circumference by 3.14l6, also find 
the diameter by multiplying the circumference by .31831. 



Size. 


ClR. 


Size. 


ClR. 


Size. 


Cm. 


k 


.3926 


10 


31.41 


30 


94.24 


i 


.7854 


i 


32.98 


31 


97.38 


3 
8 


1.178 


11 


34.55 


32 


100.5 


i 


1.570 


l 
f 


36.12 


33 


103.6 


i 


1.963 


12 


37.69 


34 


106.8 


i 


2.356 


i 

2 


39.27 


35 


109.9 


i 


2.748 


13 


40.84 


36 


113.0 


i 


3.141 


i 

2 


42.41 


37 


116.2 


4 


3.534 


14 


43.98 


38 


119.3 


i 


3.927 


1 
2" 


45.55 


39 


122.5 


3 
8 


4.319 


15 


47.12 


40 


125.6 


i 


4.712 


i 

2 


48.69 


41 


128.8 


f 


5.105 


16 


50.26 


42 


131.9 


1 


5.497 


i 

2 


51.83 


43 


135.0 


7 

8 


5.890 


17 


53.40 


44 


138.2 


2 


6.283 


i 

2 


54.97 


45 


141.3 


i 


7.068 


18 


56.54 


46 


144.5 


i 
2~ 


7.854 


i 

2" 


58.11 


47 


147.6 


3 
4 


8.639 


19 


59.69 


48 


150.7 


3 


9.424 


i 


61.26 


49 


153.9 


1 
4 


10.21 


20 


62.83 


50 


157.0 


1 
2~ 


10.99 


i 

2" 


64.40 


51 


160.2 


4 


11.78 


21 


65.97 


52 


165.3 


4 


12.56 


i 

2 


67.54 


53 


166.5 


* 


14.13 


22 


69.11 


54 


169.9 


5 


15.70 


i 


70.68 


55 


172.7 


i 


17.27 


23 


72.25 


56 


175.9 


6 


18.84 


i 
2 


73.82 


57 


179.0 


i 


20.42 


24 


75.39 


58 


182.2 


7 


21.99 


i 

2" 


76.96 


59 


185.3 


i 


23.56 


25 


78.54 


60 


188.4 


8 


25.13 


26 


81.68 


61 


191.6 


i 


26.70 


27 


84.82 


62 


194.7 


9 


28.27 


28 


87.96 


63 


197.9 


i 


28.84 


29 


91.10 


64 


201.0 



154 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

TROY WEIGHT. 

24 grains 1 pennyweight (dwt.) 

20 pennyweights ...1 ounce (oz.) 480 grains. 

12 ounces 1 pound (lb.) 5760 grains.. 

20 grains 1 scruple. 

3 scruples 1 dram 60 grains. 

8 drams 1 ounce 480 grains. 

12 ounces 1 pound 5760 grains (gr.) 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

27.34375 grains 1 dram. 

16 drams 1 ounce 437% grains. 

16 ounces 1 pound 7000 grains. 

28 pounds 1 quarter (qr.) 

4 quarters 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 112 pounds. 

20 hundredweight 1 ton (T) 2240 pounds. 

U. S. LIQUID MEASURE. 

4 gills 1 pint (pt) 28.875 cubic inches. 

2 pints 1 quart (qt.) 57.750 cubic inches 

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) 231 cubic inchez 

63 gallons 1 hogshead (hhd.) 

2 hogsheads 1 pipe (p.) 

2 pipes 1 ton. 

U. S. DRY MEASURE. 

2 pints 1 quart (qt.) 67.2006 cubic inches, 

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) 8 pts. 268.8025 cubic inches. 

2 gallons 1 ppck (pk.) 16 pts. 8 qts. 537.605 cubic inches. 

4 pecks 1 bushel (bush) 64 pts. 32 qts. 8 gals. 2150.42 cubic inches. 

LONG MEASURE. 

12 inches 1 foot (ft.) 

3 feet 1 yard (yd.) 36 inches, 

5% yards 1 rod (rd.) 16% feet. 

40rods ....1 furlong (fur.) 220 yards 660 feet. 

8 furlongs 1 mile (m) 320 rods 1760 yards 5280 feet, 

3 miles 1 league (1.) 960 rods 5280 yards 15840 feet. 



155 
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 















~ <m «a . c 


PBES6UBE. 


- 




Volume. 




<u rt 2 _ 






'~ M 






a 


'3 — S u 






z r .•_ 






"5 s » 

••9 8 


cr~~ ' ri s_ © 










O r- < 4) «-" 












*— M *> 


OJ — — X 


By 




©J3 C 


Com- 


Cubic feel of 


^ u be 

- JZ ~ 


g g P s £ 5 


Stean 


Totai 


=2 fi 


pared 
with 


Steam from 




-3 "S B ® +» - 


Guagi 




ii. 


water. 


I lb. of water. 


hJ 




























Eh £ 50 « be J3 





1.-) 


212.0 


1012 


26.36 


965.2 


11461 


g 


20 


228.0 


1229 


19.72 


952 8 


1150.9 


10 


25 


240.1 


996 


15.99 


945 3 


11.54.6 


15 


30 


250.4 


838 


13.46 


937.9 


1157.8 


20 


:r> 


259.3 


72.; 


11.65 


931 6 


1160.5 


25 


40 


267.3 


640 


10.27 


926 


1162.9 


30 


4", 


274.4 


572 


9. In 


920.9 


1165.1 


35 


CO 


281.0 


518 


8.31 


916 3 


1167.1 


40 


. r >.-> 


287. 1 


474 


7.61 


912.0 


1169.0 


15 


60 


2'. 12. 7 


437 


7.01 


908.0 


1170.7 


60 


«;.~) 


298.*0 


405 


6.49 


904.2 


11723 


65 


To 


302.9 


378 


6.07 


900. S 


1173.8 


GO 


7") 


307.5 


353 


5.68 


897.5 


1175.2 


65 


80 


312.0 


333 


5.35 


894.3 


1176.5 


70 


85 


316.1 


314 


5.05 


891.4 


1177-9 


76 


90 


320.2 


298 


4.79 


888.5 


1179.1 


80 


95 


324.1 




1.55 




1180.3 


85 


100 


327.9 


270 


4.33 


883 1 


1181.4 


90 


105 


331.3 


2.". 7 


4.14 


880.7 


1182.4 


95 


110 


334.6 


217 


3.97 


878.3 


1183.5 


1(10 


115 


338.0 


237 


3.80 


875.9 


1184.5 


110 


125 


344.2 


219 


3.51 


871.5 


11864 


120 


135 


350.1 


203 


3.27 


867.4 


1188.2 


130 


14.") 


:r>5.»; 


190 


3.06 


863.5 


1189.9 


140 


1 55 


361.0 


179 


2.87 


859.7 


1191.5 


150 


165 


366.0 


169 


2.71 


856.2 


1192.9 


160 


175 


370.8 


159 


2.56 


852.9 


1194.4 


17<> 


185 


375.3 


161 


2.4:s 


849.6 


1195.8 


180 


195 


379.7 


144 


2.31 


846.5 


1197.2 



This table gives the value of all properties of 
saturated steam required in calculations connected 
with steam boilers. 



156 
AREA OF CIRCLES. 

To find the area of a circle, square the diameter 
and multiply by .7854. 



Size. 


Area. 


Size. 


Area. 


Size. 


Area. 


Size. 


Area. 


% 


0.0123 


10 


78.54 


30 


706.86 


65 


3318.3 


y± 


0.0491 


V* 


86.59 


31 


754.75 


66 


3421.2 


% 


0.1104 


11 


95.03 


32 


804.24 


67 


3525.6 


% 


0.1963 


% 


103.86 


33 


855.30 


68 


3631.6 


% 


0.3067 


12 


113.09 


34 


907.92 


69 


3739.2 


% 


0.4417 


y* 


122.71 


35 


962.11 


70 


3848.4 


% 


0.6013 


13 


132.73 


36 


1017.8 


71 


3959.2 


i 


0.7854 


x / 2 


143.13 


37 


1075.2 


72 


4071.5 


Vs 


0.9940 


14 


153.93 


38 


1134.1 


73 


4185.3 


Ya. 


1.227 


y* 


165.13 


39 


1194.5 


74 


4300.8 


% 


1.484 


15 


186.71 


40 


1256.6 


75 


4417.8 


% 


1.767 


y* 


188.69 


41 


1320.2 


76 


4536.4 


% 


2.073 


16 


201.06 


42 


1385.4 


77 


4656.0 


% 


2.405 


% 


213-82 


43 


1452.2 


78 


4778.3 


% 


2,761 


17 


226.98 


44 


1520.5 


79 


4901.6 


2 


3.141 


V* 


240.52 


45 


1590.4 


80 


5026.5 


M 


3.976 


18 


254.46 


46 


1661.9 


81 


5153.0 


V* 


4.908 


X A 


268.80 


47 


17349 


82 


5281.0 


% 


5.939 


19 


283.52 


48 


1809.5 


83 


5410 6 


3 


7.068 


% 


298.64 


49 


1885.7 


84 


5541.7 


K 


8.295 


20 


314.16 


50 


1963.5 


85 


5674.5 


% 


9.621 


H 


330.06 


5l 


2042.8 


86 


5808.8 


% 


11.044 


21 


346.36 


52 


2123.7 


87 


5944.6 


4 


12.566 


y* 


363.05 


53 


2206.1 


88 


6082.1 


y* 


15.904 


22 


380.13 


54 


2290.2 


89 


6221.1 


5 


19.635 


X 


397.60 


55 


2375.8 


90 


6361.7 


Vi 


23.758 


23 


415.47 


56 


2463.0 


91 


6503.8 


6 


28.274 


24 


433.73 


57 


2551.7 


92 


6647.6 


y z 


33.183 


452.39 


58 


2642.0 


93 


6792.9 


7 


38.484 


X A 


471.43 


59 


2733.9 


94 


6939.7 


<fr 


44.178 


25 


490.87 


60 


2827.4 


95 


7088.2 


8 


50.265 


26 


530.93 


61 


2922.4 


96 


7238.2 . 


y* 


56.745 


27 


572.55 


62 


3019.0 


97 


7389.8 


9 


63.617 


28 


615.75 


63 


3117.2 


98 


7542.9 


M 


70.882 


29 


660.52 


64 


3216.9 


99 


7697.7 



157 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Paints, Calcimining, Stains, Colors, etc. — 
Soak one pound of white calcimine glue in 
enough water to cover it, over night ; then dis- 
solve in boiling water, add twenty pounds of 
whiting diluted with water until the mixture is 
of the consistency of cream. To this any tint 
can be given that is desired. 

TINTS. 

Lilac — Add to the calcimine two parts of 
Prussian blue and one of vermillion, stirring 
thoroughly and taking care to avoid too high a 
color. 

Gray — Raw umber with a small amount of 
lampblack. 

Rose — Three parts of vermillion and one of 
red lead added in very small quantities until a 
delicate shade is produced. 

Lavender — Mix a light blue and tint it 
slightly with vermillion. 

Straw — Chrome yellow with a touch of 
Spanish brown. 

Buff — Two parts spruce or Indian yellow and 
one part burnt sienna. 

WOOD STAINS. 

Mahogony — Boil one oz. extract of logwood 
and two ozs. fustic in one quart of water; 



158 

brush the wood with this, then go over with a 
weak solution of potash. 

Black — Dissolve one oz. extract of logwood 
in one quart of water; wash the wood with the 
solution. When dry, wash in vinegar in which 
rusty iron has been steeped for several days. 

Golden Yellow — Put % oz. powdered turme- 
ric in five fluid ounces alcohol in a closely stop- 
pered bottle, let stand a week in a warm place, 
shake it occasionally, then strain off clear. 

Black Walnut — Scald ^ pound burnt umber 
in one pint of vinegar; strain, and apply with a 
sponge, when dry rub hard; repeat the staining 
until sufficiently dark. 

Walnut No. 2 — Asphaltum thinned with tur- 
pentine produces a splendid imitation of the 
natural wood. It must be varnished after 
staining. 

Walnut No. 3 — Very thin sized shellac, one 
gallon; dry umber, burnt, one lb.; rose pink, 
y 2 lb.; Vandyke brown, burnt, y 2 lb.; mix, let 
stand a day, then stir up and apply with a 
sponge. 

Orange — Put one ounce turmeric and a 
drachm of gum tragacanth in a pint of alcohol: 
shake well, and after standing four days, strain. 

Red — Two ozs. potash and two ozs. Brazil 
wood in one quart of water; let stand in a warm 



159 

place a few days, stirring occasionally; heat to 
a boiling point, and apply. Double the quan- 
tity of potash (four ozs. ) will give a brilliant 
rose color to the wood. 

Cherry, on white wood or pine — Alcohol, 
one quart; ground turmeric, three ozs.; raw 
gamboge, \ Y / 2 ozs. Mix well, strain through 
fine muslin, apply two coats with a sponge, 
rub down well, and varnish. 

Antique Oak — Walnut oil, obtained of the 
druggist, if mixed with the filling applied to 
red oak or white oak, it will produce the an- 
tique effect so much sought after and used on 
furniture and interior finished houses. 

Quantity of paints, material required for 
priming, if tinted white lead is used, it will 
take twenty pounds of lead and five quarts of 
raw linseed oil. 

For second coat, twenty pounds of lead and 
one gallon of oil. If three-coat work is in- 
tended, the amount of material required for 
priming and completing the work will average 
fifty pounds of lead and 2^ gallons of oil. 

To measure painting in square or 100 feet, 
allow five lbs. of lead one quart of oil. It 
takes already mixed paints one gallon per coat 
for each 25 square yards. 

All should learn how to mix and apply 



160 

paint. Often at your leisure you can apply 
your time profitably about your home or en- 
gine room to beautify the looks and value of 
the property. 

When to Paint. — Paint in the fall, winter or 
early spring, as paint at that season dries 
slowly and makes a hard, glossy surface. 

Brushes. — The character of work done wil] 
determine the kind of brush to use. One or 
two flat and three round brushes of various 
sizes will be sufficient; wire bound ones are the 
most durable. After use, the brushes should 
be thoroughly cleaned with turpentine and 
covered with tallow. 

House Painting. — If the house be new, the 
knots should be covered with shellac to prevent 
the rosin from running and discolor the paint. 
The first coat is white lead and raw linseed oil; 
boiled oil and turpentine are used in after 
coats. For inside finish, equal parts of boiled 
oil and turpentine are used for the second 
coat, and nearly all turpentine for last coat. 

The color desired should be in the last coat, 
the first being pure white lead. 

Harmony of Colors. — Care should be taken 
not to use the colors that would give an un- 
pleasing effect to the work. 

Common White Paints. — Mix white lead 



161 

with linseed oil, bringing to the consistency of 
paste; then add one part turpentine to three 
parts oil to right consistency. 

Milk Paints. — Mix water lime with skimmed 
milk to a proper degree of consistency, to be 
applied with a brush. It will adhere to any- 
thing where oil paint has not been used or ap- 
plied, and is as durable as oil paint. Colors 
dissolved in whiskey may be added if desired. 

Compounding Colors. — Any number of 
shades of colors may be made by mixing other 
colors. The following shows how to produce 
some of the most popular shades : 

Flesh color is made with white lead, lake 
and vermillion. 

Cream color is chrome yellow, Venetian red, 
white lead and red lead in oil. 

Buff is French yellow, chrome yellow and 
white lead with tinge of Venetian red mixed in 
oil. 

Violet— Vermillion, blue black and little 
white. 

Dark Red — Mix Venetian red in boiled oil, 
little red lead and litharge. 

Orange — Red lead and French yellow linseed 
oil. 

Black and Green. — Durable and cheap black 
paint is made by grinding powdered charcoal 
11 



162 

in linseed oil, with a little litharge as a drier. 
Add yellow ochre to this and an excellent 
green is obtained which will not fade. 

Cheap Paint for Out Buildings. — Lime, one 
bushel, and water to make a whitewash; min- 
eral paint, fifty lbs.; road dust, fifty lbs. ; add 
oil till it makes a paste, and thin with sweet 
milk. 

Cheap Oak Varnish, — Boiled oil, two quarts; 
litharge, y 2 lb.; shellac, y lb.; gum, one oz.; 
boil till dissolved, then cool, and add two 
quarts of turpentine. 

Good Liniment for Man or Beast. — Take z / 2 
oz. turpentine, y 2 oz. tincture of aqua lauda- 
num, y 2 oz. oil of sassafras, y 2 oz. hemlock 
oil, two ozs. tincture myrrh, one oz. oil of ori- 
ganum, y oz. oil of wintergreen, one oz. chlo- 
roform, one oz. camphor gum. Mix and apply 
externally to parts affected. Highly recom- 
mended for rheumatism, sprains, bruises, 
swellings, etc., on man or beast. Apply twice 
a day with naked hand; rub thoroughly. 

Indelible Ink. — Aniline black, one drop; 
concentrated hydro-chloric acid, 60 drops ; 
alcohol, Y 2 oz. Mix and add 1% oz. gum 
arabic dissolved in six ozs. soft water. 

Liquid Glue. — Dissolve good hard glue in 
nitric ether. The ether will take up only a 



183 

certain amount of the glue, so it will not 
thicken. If small bits of India rubber be 
added it will resist dampness. 

The Use of Exhaust Steam for Heating 
Purposes. — Steam users and engineers have 
long been interested in the advantages to be 
derived from the utilization of the exhaust 
steam from engines or steam pumps, instead of 
wasting it into the air. By using it as a source 
of heat to warm manufactories, buildings, etc., 
and for certain manufacturing processes re- 
quiring heat, a large percentage of the thermal 
value of the fuel consumed in boiler furnaces, 
which is ordinarily lost, is utilized, thus insur- 
ing economy in fuel. The exhaust steam as it 
comes from the engine at a little more than 212 
degrees Fahr. can be, and is used, to some ad- 
vantage and economy under certain condi- 
tions, but experience has shown that owing to 
its low temperature, moist condition and com- 
parative slow velocity, it is les? efficient for 
the purpose of conveying and radiating heat 
than steam of a higher temperature; that is 
liable to sudden and rapid condensation, and 
that it is difficult to obtain a free circulation 
for heating purposes which eventuates in back 
pressure on the engine, neutralizing its value 
by reason of the extra fuel required to enable 



164 

the engine to carry the extra load. The linYh 
of fair economy in use of exhaust steam is two 
to three pounds back pressure; beyond this, 
use live steam to assist in circulation. A re< 
heater through which the gases pass after 
leaving the furnace is a valuable improvement 
in exhaust steam heating; about one hundred 
degrees of heat is imparted to exhaust steam 
without interruption of draught or extra ex- 
penditure of fuel by means of the heat that 
would otherwise go to water. Chimney gases 
have a temperature of 400 to 600 degrees, 
while that of exhaust steam is about 212 de- 
grees. The economy of this method is there- 
fore evident 

Heating Feed Water. — This is a very im- 
portant department of the steam plant; the 
feed water supplied to steam boilers has to be 
heated from the normal temperature to that of 
steam before evaporation can take place, and 
this is generally done at the expense of the 
fuel which should be utilized in making steam. 
The pressure at 75 pounds is 320 degrees heat; 
taking 60 degrees as the average temperature 
of feed we have 260 units of heat per pound, 
which, as it takes 1151 units to evaporate a 
pound from 60 degrees, represents a loss of 
22/4 p. ct. of fuel. All of this heat, there- 



165 

fore, which can be imparted to the feed water 
is just so much saved, not only in cost of fuel, 
but in capacity of boiler. All heat imparted 
to feed water by injection and "live steam 
heaters" is taken from the fuel and does not 
represent any saving. 

There are two sources of waste heat avail- 
able for this purpose — exhaust steam partially 
used and chimney gases. 




CORLISS ENGINE. 

The valve gear of Corliss engines are easily 
set, when one knows and understands a com- 
mon slide-valve, as the four valves of a Corliss 
engine represent the two steam and the two 
exhaust edges of a common slide valve. 

To set the Corliss valve, take off the back 
valve and exhaust valve chest heads. There 
will be found marks to set by. See that the 
wrist plate and four valves are connected and 
centrally covering their respective ports, that 
the crank-pin is at dead centre, and the eccen- 



166 

trie (heavy side) perpendicular. Move the 
eccentric the direction the engine is to be run 
and show by the valve chest marks and the 
edge of valve 1-16 lead (or opening) tighten 
the eccentric, and move the crank-pin to the 
other dead centre, and notice if the other 
steam valve has the same lead; if equal, the 
steam valves are O. K. ; if not, make the adjust 
of y 2 it is out, by the connections between the 
wrist plate and valve. Give the exhaust valves 
double the lead of steam valves. 

To adjust the governor rods or tripping, 
cams, move the wrist plate to one extreme of 
its travel, adjust the rod connecting with cut-off 
cam on opposite steam valve, so cam will clear 
the steel 1-32 cf an inch; then do the opposite 
valve the same. To equalize and test their 
correctness, hook in the engine with eccentric 
reach-rod and block up the governor about \% 
inches, or about the average position the gov- 
ernor will be in when running; then have some 
one move the fly-wheel in the running direc- 
tion, and take notice how far the crosshead 
(from dead centre) has traveled when the 
valve unhooks; if the two valves unhook at the 
same distance from either dead point the cut-off 
is equal; if otherwise, make adjustments and 
bring it so they will cut-off equal. 



167 
AUTOMATIC GOVERNORS. 



The governors on automatic engines are 
connected to the eccentric and fly (or balance) 
wheel, and so connected by means of levers, 
weights and springs, as to shorten the stroke 
of the eccentric and valve when engine has 
attained the proper speed at which it is set. 
The springs are set before leaving the work- 




AUT03IATIC ENGINE. 

shops, and should not be tampered with unless 
to change the engine to a slower or higher 
speed. When an engineer wishes to do this he 
must adjust each spring and weight equally to 
a hair, or the engine will pound and run un- 
even. Each builder of automatic engines sup- 
plies each engine with a book of instructions 
having therein descriptive cuts of valves, 
movements, etc. 



168 

ELECTRICITY. 

In this part of the book we will place in 
questions and answers the explanation of the 
dynamo, electricity, etc. 

Q. What is the cause of a thunder storm or 
lightning ? 

A. The common conception of a thunder 
and lightning storm is that when clouds 
charged with the sun's potential energy, called 
electricity, approach and set up an inductive 
circuit to the earth, the earth forms the oppo- 
site condensing plate, and if the earth has the 
least resistance when the tension rises to a 
degree greater than the resistance can sustain, 
then the discharge will be from the clouds to 
the earth in a flash of fire, called lightning (or 
thunder bolt) the thunder is caused by the rush 
of the air together after being burnt out by the 
lightning. 

Q. Give the different measurements used 
in electricity? 

A. The "Volt," which is the unit of 
measure, known in dynamic terms as " Pres- 
sure." The "Ampere" is the measure of 
electricity or amount of current passed, or the 
amount transmitted or used. The "Ohm," 
called the resistance. The "Coulomb," called 



169 

foot pounds or a measure of current. The 
"Watt," called the 746th part of an electrical 
horse power. 

Q. State as near as you know the force of 
a thunderbolt? 

A. The pressure would be about 
3,000,000 volts, and about 14,000,000 am- 
pers used and power, about 2,000,000,000 
watts, and the time for all about a twenty - 
thousandth part of a second. 

Q. What is a magnet? 

A. A magnet is anything that will attract 
and draw to it steel. Magnetism will produce 
electricity, and vice versa» This is the reason 
we can do so many wonders through the use 
of electricity. 

Q. How would you make a magnet ? 

A. Take a steel horse shoe and wind it with 
fine copper wire, starting at one end of the shoe 
and wind around until we come to the other 
end of the shoe, and attach the two ends of 
wire to a battery, and the amperes of electricity 
will travel through the wire and charge the 
steel horse shoe with electricity, making of it 
what is called a magnet. 



170 

Q. Can you make a magnet out of a soft iron 
shoe? 

A. No; not a permanent one, although the 
iron shoe makes a stronger magnet while the 
current of electricity passes through it, but as 
soon as the current ceasss, the electricity leaves 
the shoe. 

Q. How should a building be protected 
against lightning? 

A. As a rule the conductor or lightning rod, 
as the electricians term it, is supposed to have a 
sort of power to attract the electric current or 
bolt to the ground, like jl gutter pipe would 
carry water from the roof. 

Q. Is a house safe with them on ? 

A. If enough of them are placed about the 
house top they may help, say one to every ten 
Bquare feet. 

Q. Is atmospheric electricity very dangerous 
or powerful ? 

A. It is about the same as the electricity we 
use for lighting purposes, and is detrimental tc 
telephone, telegraph and other wires carrying 
low potential currents, also people of a nervous 
temperament. 

Q. How should a lightning rod be at the 
the base to do any particular g*ood, if any, 
and what is a practical thickness? 



171 



A. The wire or rod should be at least J inch, 
and a solid rod having continuous metallic con- 
nections. The connection to the ground should 
be water, moist ground or gas or water pipes, the 
"bolt" rests and loses its force when it reaches 
the ground. 




THE DYNAMO. 

Q. Explain how you understand a dyamo 
and its use? 

A. The dynamo is an electric machine which 



172 



is driven with a steam engine or water power, 
and is used to produce the electricity for elec- 
tric lighting, electroplating, power, etc. This is 
where magnetism makes electricity. 

Q. Explain the dynamo? 

A, The dynamo is a combination of different 
parts so connected that when in working order 
it produces electricity, the combination consists 




SKELETON DYNAMO. 

of twelve different parts, five of them constitute 
the magnet, namely: two "cores," K, L, two 
bottom cores or plate pieces, P,P, and one yoke C, 
The cores are hollow and wound with wires F, F, 
the amount is according to the use to which the 
dynamo is to be put. The poles are called the 
North and South poles; herewith will be found 
skeleton cut of magnet. 



173 



Q. State the amount of pressure or voltage 
there is in a dynamo for arc lighting? 

A. There is about from 2,400 to 3,000 volts. 

Q. State the amount of voltage on an incan- 
descent dynamo? 

A. It is about 110 volts, which is not consid- 
ered dangerous and is sufficient for any number 
of sixteen candle power lamps. 

Q. Give a description of 
an arc light? 

A. An arc light consists 
of a frame work, clock work, 
feeder on top, two carbon 
holders, and two carbons, wir- 
ing, etc. 

Q. Why are two carbon 
pencils used ?, 

A. If no resistance was 
given to the lamp or electri- 
cal current, we never would 
have a light. The current 
passing from one carbon to 
another breaks off a fine 
shower of carbon dust from 
the upper pencil as fine as 
flour and causes them to 
reach a white heat, the ends 
of carbons being hot, to- 
gether with the shower of carbon dust at white 
heat makes the light. 




174 




ARMATURE. 



175 

Q. Give an illustration cf this. 

A. To illustrate this, take a rope tightly in 
your hand and let some one pull it quickly 
through and it would heat, viz: the resistance 
your hand gave the rope is what causes the 
heat, therefore the resistance the carbon sticks 
give the electrical current, causes the immense 
heat and does as stcted in the answer before this 
one. 

Q. For what purposes are arc lights used? 

A. They are used for street lighting, also 
stores, etc. 

The armature rests in two journal box stands, 
on the armature is a commutator made of pieces 
of isinglass (or insolation) and copper; the cop- 
per is connected to the wires on the armature, 
and on each side of the armature rest two or 
more brushes two make the circuit complete. 

Q. Are dynamos permanent magnets? 

A. No, they are made of cast iron, except the 
copper and insulation, and as soon as the dyna- 
mo has stopped, the magnetism is a mere noth- 
ing; if the dynamo was made of steel it would 
retain the magnetism and the magnetism 
could not easily be regulated, where on the 
other hand the magnetism in the cast-iron 
dynamo can be easily regulated. 



176 






Q. Are there other electric lights besides the 
arc light just mentioned? 

A. Yes; the incandescent lamp, which is 
shaped like a pear, it is made of thin clear glass, 
has a U shaped carbon in the glass which is 
made air tight containing a vacuum. 

Q. Does the elec- 
trical current have to 
jump from one carbon 
to the other in an in- 
candescent light the 
same way as in the 
arc light ? 

A. No; the incan- 
descent carbon is a 
continual carbon and 
is about as large as 
a horse's hair, the car- 
bon is made of carbon- 
ized bamboo cane it is 
joined inside by plat- 
inum and two thin cop- 
per wires, one being 
attached to a brass 
ring and the other to 
a brass button at the 
bottom of the lamp. 
These two are separated generally by plaster 




177 

of paris which is a nonconductor and no elec- 
tricity will pass through it. The struggle 
between the electric current and the carbonized 
bamboo is so great and the carbon being the 
weaker of the two, has to submit to being heated 
to a white heat, which produces the light. 

Q. State why it is that the carbon is not 
wasted as in the arc light? 

A. Because the one, (arc light) is out in the 
atmosphere, while the other is heated in a vacuum. 

Q. How long is the life of an arc light 
carbon, also an incandescent carbon. 

A, The arc light (top) carbon will last about 
from ten to twelve hours and the lower one 
about twenty or thirty, the lower burns the 
slowest. In an incandescent globe it never wastes 
away as the vacuum (which means the exclusion 
of the oxygen air) prevents it. They (incandes- 
cent carbons) have lasted from one minute to 
1500 hours, just as they are handled and used. 

Q. What is a switch and its use ? 

A, There are many makes and kinds of 
switches, some for lamps, some for circuits, such 
as to cut out the lights in one room and leave 
another burn, or turn out ten lights or any num- 
ber by switching off each separate light. A 
switch is a connection betw T een two wires, which 
circuit can be broken at any time without doing 



178 

any particular harm to anything or anyone. 

Q. Is there any danger of being shocked 
with an electric wire? 

A. If the wire is insulated there is no danger 
of getting hurt, but there is if not covered, and 
you are standing on damp ground, as damp 
ground and water are great conductors of elee= 




ARC DYNAMO. 

tricity. If a man were to take hold of the bare 
wires used on street car lines and get hold with 
his feet clear of anything connected to the 
ground, the current would pass through him and 
not harm him but if his feet were to touch any- 
thing connected to the ground his life would 
pay the penalty, 



179 
THE MOTOR. 



Q. Of what use is the electric power? 

A. It is one of the finest, cleanest and most 
convenient powers we can pat to use for different 
purposes, such as driving different machines, 
sewing machines, printing presses, small fac- 
tories, street cars, railway trains, etc. 




ELECTRIC MOTOR. 



Q. How is this kind of work done by 
electricity? 

A. It is done through an electro-motor. (Motor) 



180 

Q. What is an electro-motor. (Motor.) 

A. A motor is practically a dynamo machine 

Q. Is the motor wound the same as a 
dynamo? 

A. Yes ; the dynamo is run by an engine and 
produces the electricity, while the motor gets its 
power from the dynamo. 

Q. How does the dynamo deliver its elec- 
tricity to the motor? 

A. The dynamo delivers its electricity to the 
motor through two main wires, which are at- 
tached, one to each brush of the motor, thus 
making the driven dynamo a motor. 

Q. Is the centre of the armature of the mo- 
tor the same as the dynamo? 

A. Not exactly, the principle is the same 
only the spool is made of iron plates fastened 
together, making one solid piece. 

Q. What is meant by positive and negative? 

A. It means North and South poles. The pos- 
itive will not attract a positive, nor the negative 
attract a negative, a positive and a negative must 
always be together to do the work, on a motor 
armature there are crossed pieces of iron, two 
negatives and two positives, the magnet is posi- 
tive and negative, one on each side of the crossed 
pieces of the armature, therefore the positive 
magnet dxaws the negative pieces on the armature 



181 

and the negative magnet draws the positive and 
so it keeps on. This is what turns the armature 
around, the more electricity that is transferred 
from the dynamo to the motor the faster the 
motor armature will revolve. 

Q. What has that to do with moving the 
wheels of a car, or the moving of machinery ? 

A. For moving or running machinery, there 
is a pulley wheel on the end of the armature of 
the motor for a belt. For the car motor there 
is a strong toothed gear wheel which works com- 
pounded by more wheels moving or turning the 
axle and wheels of the car. 

Q. How is the current of electricity conveyed 
from the overhead wire to the motor ? 

A. The electricity is conveyed by what is 
known as a trolley; attached to the trolley wheel 
is a wire leading down along side of a pole, 
through the inside frame of the car and to the 
motor brushes. 

Q. How is the car stopped or started? 

A. On each car is a motorman who attends 
to that part of the car, and the turning on and 
off of the current is done by a switch under- 
neath the car, the switch is attached to a link 
chain, the chain is attached to an upright rod 
and pinion wheel at the end of the platform. 
The motorman when he wishes to start or 



182 

stop the car, turns a small crank handle which 
opens or closes a switch, whichever he wishes 
to do; of course, in stopping he usesthebrake 
the same as on any other car. 

SPARKING OF COMMUTATOR. 

Q. State the main causes of the commutator 
to spark? 

A. Brushes not being properly or evenly set 
with the centre line on the commutator, bad ia- 
' sulation on the armature wiring, grease and dirt 
in the brushes coming in contact with the arma- 
ture, also too much of the surface of brush cov- 
ering the commutator . 

Q. How would you find the trouble ; state 
by the color of sparks ? 

A. If the brushes are too short the color is 
generally a greenish color, if the spark sputters 
or has a reddish color the brushes are too long, 
badly worn or have had too much contact; this 
causes the eating away of the commutator, 

Q. If this is not prevented what will be the 
result? 

A. If not attended to, the edges of the cop- 
per segments of the commutator will be eaten 
away and the commutator will become as rough 
as a piece of corduroy cloth. 

Q. What will copper dust or oil do on a 
commutator ? 






183 

A. It will carry the fire all the way around 
the commutator. 

Q. Is this the only cause of such a spark? 

A. No; sometimes it will be found near the 
spot that the insulation is charred or one of the 
connections between the armature wires and the 
copper segment of the commutator is loose or bad, 

Q. What is the result or cause of this? 

A. A short circuit. 

Q. In what condition does the face of the 
commutator look near or in line of this spark? 

A. It leaves a flat or hollow spot, such as 
could be made with the pene of a hammer. 

Q. What should be done when a spot is 
found like the one mentioned? 

A. Dress the commutator down to a round 
smooth surface. 

Q. State a good way to keep a brush from 
wearing out too soon? 

A. A good way is to turn the brush over. 

Q. What causes a hot commutator? 

A. Generally badly worn and dirty brushes 

Q. With what can a dynamo be compared so 
as to be easily understood? 

A. If an engineer wishes to understand the 
dynamo thoroughly he should compare it with 
the workings of a steam pump. 

Q. Give an explanation of the pump theory? 



184 

A. The dynamo or pump gathers electricity 
and forces it through the wires, the same as a 
pump does water through a line of pipe, except 
that the dynamo forms a complete circuit from 
the dynamo out and returns to the dynamo 
whereas the pump forces in one direction or line, 
but if the pump forced the same water contin- 
ually by having it flow back to the pump again 
its comparison would be with that of the dynamo. 

Q. What else can be compared? 

A. We can compare the steam pressure which 
overcomes the resistance or friction of the water 
in the pipe, with the voltage cf the dynamo to 
overcome the resistance of the wire and carbons. 

Q. With what would you compare amperes ? 

A. The amount delivered. 

Q. With what would you compare the line- 
wire? 

A. To the water pipe. 

Q. With what would you compare the current? 

A. Compare the current to the amount of 
water in motion, 

Q. Suppose the dynamo was large and the 
wire small what would be the consequence or 
comparison? 

A. The smaller the wire the more relative 
friction or resistance to the number of amperes 
delivered and the larger the main wires leading 



185 

from the dynamo the less relative friction or re* 
sistance in delivering the number of amperes, 
and current of electricity. 

Q. What is meant by a converter on an al- 
ternating system? 

A. It means in engineering a reducing value, 
or carrying a high voltage at the dynamo and 
passing through the converter the voltage is re- 
duced for the lamps, 

Q. What is an alternating dynamo? 

A. It is a high voltage or arc machine using 
a converter (just explained) to which incandes- 
cent lights are attached. 

Q. What is meant here by a continuous cur- 
rent of electricity ? 

A. It is understood 4hat it is a current that 
flows in one direction, like steam in a pipe or 
water in a hose. 

Q. What is meant here by an alternating 
current, also compare it to something? 

A. Compare it to the crank and connecting 
rod; no dynamo or electric generator yet invented 
designed or made, ever did generate anything 
but alternating currents of electricity, or more 
correctly speaking waves or impulses of potential. 

Q. How is the alternating current cummuted 
into a continuous current? 

A, It is done by the commutator and brushes; 



186 

therefore the alternating is the original and only, 
and the continuous currents are obtained from 
any machine by manipulating the original or 
alternating current. 

Q. What is the horse power of a continuous 
current dynamo the voltage being 110 and am- 
peres 330? 

A. The voltage being 110 and the amperes 
330; we multiply 330 X 110 = 36.300 watts, and 
as 746 watts equal one horse-power, we divide 
36.300 -T- 746 = 48 horse power. In continuous 
current engineering, the resistance of the wire is 
about all the obstruction that has to be calculated 
but in alternating circuits another factor comes 
in that of inertia, or self induction Indepen- 
dence depends directly upon the resistance of 
the conductors, and the inertia of the current in 
the circuit. If we construct a right angle tri- 
angle, and let the base equal the number of 
ohms resistance, then let the upright equal in a 
similar manner the inertia of self induction of 
the circuit ; then the level line will be the inde- 
pendence or total resistance in the circuit. The 
inertia, or self induction of a circuit is just as 
great in one used for continuous currents as it 
is in one for alternating distribution, but as in- 
ertia only makes itself felt when a body is 
stopped or started, it is only with the continu- 



187 

ous current when that is first started and when 
it is stopped, that is, the electric current tends 
to hang back when being started, and to keep 
on moving when we wish to stop it, just as a fly- 
wheel does. The inertia of a continuous current 
shows itself when we open a switch through 
which a heavy current is passing. The inertia 
of the current prevents its stopping the instant 
the circuit is broken, and the fine arc often 
formed across the switch is the " coming along " 
of current left after the supply was cut off. 

Electric inertia in any conductor depends 
largely upon the amount of magnets, motors, 
converters, etc., in the circuit, and it can be ex- 
perimented with by pulling the fields of a motor 
or dynamo into a bell circuit. King the bell 
through the coils of wire thus added, and it will 
be noticed that the bell does not begin to ring 
as quickly as when the coils are not in circuit. 
Also that the bell rings a little after the contact 
lias been broken, showing that the current lags 
behind. Another example, but more of mag- 
netism than electricity, is in the position of the 
brushes on a dynamo; they have to be twisted 
around to fit the lag of the magnetic current. 

We now come to the term "phase." If we 
take two alternating dynamos and couple the 
shafts together so that they are obliged to run 



188 

at the same speed, then we may say that the 
alternations of current have the same phase. 
The highest point or maximum of positive volt- 
age occur at the same instant in both dynamos, 
hence the phases of the two machines are the 
same. Let the two machines be uncoupled and 
driver separated by belt and we may find that 
their positive maximums do not come exactly 
the same time, hence we may say the phase of 
the two dynamos are different. In other words, 
we may say that the maximum of positive elec- 
tro-motive force occurs at exactly the same time 
in each machine;, in any other case, the phases 
differ. An engineer can get a pretty good idea of 
the meaning of " phase" by standing in line with 
the crank shafts of two engines, both of which 
are running. If both cranks come to their high- 
est points at exactly the same instant, their phase 
is the same, but if one of the cranks gradually 
draws ahead of the other then the phases are 
different. 

We have now come to the terms often heard 
in connection with alternating currents, viz., 
one, two, three, four phase, etc. If we should 
take the two engines when they were running 
with their cranks at ninety degrees to each other, 
and suddenly couple them together thus, they 
would be running in two-phase, or bi-phase, like 



189 

the drivers of a locomotive. That may be called 
a " bi-phase" engine. If three engines were 
coupled together with cranks at 120, the com- 
bination would be called a u tri- phase " engine. 
An example of this may be found in the naphtha 
launch engines, so well and favorably known. 
When four engines are coupled together they are 
called "quadruple," and the coupling of four 
dynamos follow^ the same nomenclature. 

By coupling the engines w T e get rid of dead 
points, and raise the line of mean efficiency. The 
same thing is done in coupling up alternating 
dynamos, The mean efficiency line is raised,, 
and the dead points are got rid of. 

TELEGRAPH AND BATTERIES. 

Q. What is telegraphy? 

A. Telegraph means to make known by sound. 

Q. What constitutes a telegraphers outfit? 

Ac The battery, wire, sounder and key. 

Q. How can one tell by sound the word meant ? 

A. By dots, dashes and spaces. 

Q. Of what use is a battery? 

A. To produce the necessary electricity. 

Q. Can any one telegraph without electricity ? 

A. Yes, within hearing distance, but for long 
distances one hundred feet to any distance in 



190 

miles electricity and iron wire must be used. 

Q. State what is a telegraph key? 

A. A telegraph key is usually made of brass, 
except the knob upon the handle, which is hard 
rubber or gutta percha. The second little knob 
is the switch to close when key is not in service 
and to let messages pass from one city or station 
to another on either side of your own, in other 
words it makes a free passage way for electricity- 




TELEGRAPH KEY. 



Q. When should this switch be open? 

A. When one wishes to send a message. 

Q. What is meant by a dot, dash and space? 

A. To press the key down and let it spring 
back quickly, that means a dot. To press down 
the key and hold it there a little bit longer, that 
is a dash. To wait a little while before pressing 
down the key again, represents a space. 



191 

Q. Can you go through the alphabet? 

A. Yes, A is a dot and dash : B is a dash and 
three dots : C is two dots, a space and one dot; 
D is a dash and two dots ; E is a single dot ; F 
is one dot, dash, one dot ; G is two dashes and 
one dot; H is four dots ; I is two dots ; J is one 
dash, one dot, one dash, one dot ; K, dash, dot, 
dash ; L, long dash ; M, two dashes ; N, dash 
and dot ; 0, dot, space, dot ; P, five dots ; Q, two 
dots, dash, dot ; R, one dot,, space, two dots ; S, 

A B C D E F G 

M N 



T U 



H 


I 


J 


K 


L 


O 


P 


Q 


R 


S 



V W X Y Z & 

a ■ ■ ■■■ mumwm m m m m ma mm aaa a m a m a 

TELEGRAPHIC CODE. 

three dots ; T, dash ; TJ, two dots one dash : V, 
three dots and dash ; W, one dot two dashes ; X, 
one dot, one dash, two dots ; Y, two dots, space, 
two dots; Z, three dots, space, one dot ; &, one 
dot, space, three dots. To make the above more 
plain we have placed the dots, dashes and spaces 
under each letter so they can be more plainly 
understood, 



192 

Q. What is a sounder? 

A. A sounder consists of two black pillars 
which are iron cases wound with very fine cop- 
per wire, and is called an electro-magnet, and 
across the top of the two pillars is a piece of iron 
representing the armature, held up by a spring. 

Q. How are the wire key sounder and bat- 
tery connected with the single wire ? 




SOUNDER. 

A. The battery is connected to the earth, the 
sounder to the battery, the key to the sounder, 
and the outside wire to the key. 

Q. What is a battery? 

A. There are various kinds of batteries, such 
as the Leclanch's porous cup battery, Law bat- 
tery, Grenet battery, the Tillotson battery, and 
several other makes of batteries. Batteries are 
divided into two classes, "open circuit " and 
" closed circuit." The open eircuit batteries are 
used on telephones, electric bells, burglar alarms, 
gas lighting, annunciators, etc. The closed cir- 
cuits are for electric lights and motors. 



MAR 5 1903 






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